HANDBOOK   OF   PRACTICE 
FOR   TEACHERS 

PRACTICAL  DIRECTIONS 

FOR 

MANAGEMENT  AND  INSTRUCTION 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO  •   DALLAS 
ATLANTA  •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


\ 


HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE 
FOR  TEACHERS 

PRACTICAL   DIRECTIONS 

FOR 

MANAGEMENT  AND   INSTRUCTION 


BY 


CHARLES   A.   McMURRY 

n 

DIRECTOR   OF  TRAINING   DEPARTMENT,  NORTHERN   ILLINOIS 

STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL  AND  SUPERINTENDENT 

OF  SCHOOLS,  DEKALB,  ILLINOIS 


* 


Nefo  gflrft 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

1914 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  19x4, 
By  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  July,  19x4.    Reprinted 
December,  1914. 


***.  «•«*•  • 


- 


*  «     *     •  » • . 


Norxsoot)  l9rrB« 

J.  S.  Cashing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


The  hearty  thanks  and  appreciation  of  the  author 
are  due  to  the  Principals  and  Teachers  of  the  City 
and  to  the  Critic  Teachers  of  the  Normal  Training 
Schools  at  DeKalb,  whose  close  cooperation  and 
criticism  have  helped  to  bring  this  material  into  its 
present  shape.  The  statements  on  music  were  pre- 
pared by  Miss  Maude  Nicholson. 


PREFACE 

This  Handbook  has  a  definite  practical  purpose,  as 
follows : 

i.  On  the  basis  of  experience  in  training  and  su- 
pervising teachers  to  point  out  a  few  of  the  positive 
requirements  and  limitations  of  schoolroom  work. 

2.  In  order  to  get  economy  of  time  and  effort,  to 
state  plainly  the  chief  principles  and  conditions  for 
securing  efficiency. 

3.  To  set  up  concisely  the  standards  and  essentials 
of  schoolroom  practice. 

4.  To  point  out  common  faults  and  bad  habits. 

5.  To  show  briefly  the  peculiar  requirements  of 
each  common  school  study. 

6.  To  give  help  and  guidance  to  young  teachers 
and  to  remind  older  teachers  of  wrong  tendencies. 

7.  To  suggest  points  of  value  to  superintendents 
and  supervisors. 

American  teachers  as  a  body  are  progressive  and 
are  in  a  developing  process.  They  must  grow  while 
they  teach. 

This  book  is  particularly  designed  for  use  in  Nor- 
mal and  Training  schools. 


Vll 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 
SUGGESTIONS  ON  MANAGEMENT 

SECTION  PAGE 

i.  Management i 

2.  Class  Control  and  Room  Control   ...   4 

3.  Orderliness  in  School  Housekeeping  ...   6 

CHAPTER   II 
TEACHERS 

1.  Superintendents,  Supervisors,  and  Critics  .        .      10 

2.  General     Character    and     Qualifications     of 

Teachers 13 

3.  Difficulties     and     Faults     of     Inexperienced 

Teachers 17 

4.  Growth  of  Teachers       .        .        .        •       •        .21 

CHAPTER   III 
CHILDREN 

1.  Child  Study      ........      25 

2.  Common  Faults  of  Children 28 

3.  Social  Combinations  among  Children  ...      30 

ix 


X  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   IV 
CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION 

SECTION  PAGE 

i.  The  Planning  of  Lessons  for  Classroom  Work  35 

2.  Exercises  not  Included  in  the  Larger  Units  of 

Study 39 

3.  Oral  Instruction  and  the  Development  Method  41 

4.  Questioning 47 

5.  Attention 51 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  CRITICISM  OF  INSTRUCTION 

1.  How  to  Judge  and  Criticize  Class  Recitations  53 

2.  Where  to  Center  Attention 56 

3.  Formal  Routine  and  Humdrum      ....  59 

4.  How  Time  is  Wasted 62 

5.  The  Study  Period 65 


CHAPTER  VI 

GENERAL  PROBLEMS 

1.  Unsolved  Problems 68 

2.  General  Principles  . 71 

3.  The  Course  of  Study 73 

4.  Textbooks  and  Apparatus 75 


CONTENTS  xi 


CHAPTER  VII 

SUGGESTIONS  BEARING   ON  SCHOOL 
STUDIES 

SECTION  PAGE 

i.  Language 77 

2.  Geography .88 

3.  Reading 93 

4.  Arithmetic 102 

5.  Nature  Study 113 

6.  History 118 

7.  Music 129 

8.  Spelling 133 

9.  Drawing 135 

10.  Writing 136 

11.  Manual  Arts 137 

12.  Interrelation  between  Studies   .        .        .        .138 


110  5)  >      , 


HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE 
FOR  TEACHERS 

CHAPTER  I 

SUGGESTIONS  ON  MANAGEMENT 

i.  Management 

i.  Few  and  quiet  signals  are  indicative  of  strength 
in  discipline.  Be  not  noisy  and  demonstrative  in 
securing  order. 

2.  Be  deliberate  and  self -controlled  in  all  matters  of 
discipline.     Keep  down  excitement  and  anger. 

3.  Make  but  few  requirements  and  only  after  full 
deliberation.  Every  order  issued  by  the  teacher 
amounts  to  a  rule  upon  which  his  reputation  is 
staked. 

4.  In  the  main  use  suggestion  rather  than  command. 

5.  Cultivate  firmness  and  decision  with  gentleness. 

6.  Good  discipline  is  consistent  and  steady,  not 
variable  and  inconstant. 

7.  Deal  promptly  with  individuals  for  any  plain 
disorder  so  that  the  infection  of  disorder  may  not 
spread. 


«       r 


4  ,  •**?•* 


2  HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

8.  Do  not  forget  and  neglect  your  own  require- 
ments. 

g.  One  important  rule  or  requirement  steadily 
and  persistently  executed  will  sometimes  settle  the 
question  of  control  and  good  order. 

io.  Make  a  point  of  controlling  the  school  or  the 
class  through  your  own  influence  and  authority. 
Take  advice  from  the  principal  but  use  self-reliance 
in  room  control. 

ii.  Be  fair-minded  and  just.  Secure  the  respect 
of  children  by  honest  dealing.  Justice  is  the  funda- 
mental school  virtue. 

12.  Good  discipline  leads  the  children  gradually  to 
self-control  and  self -direction. 

13.  The  best  discipline  is  that  which  is  so  quiet  and 
natural  that  it  becomes  invisible.  The  teacher's 
authority  is  swallowed  up  and  disappears  in  the 
proper  school  activities. 

14.  Keeping  children  steadily  and  profitably  occu- 
pied with  school  work  is  the  chief  means  of  main- 
taining good  order.  Push  the  work  vigorously,  and 
many  disorders  will  disappear. 

15.  Be  slow  in  attributing  fault  to  a  child.  Be 
slow  to  take  offense  because  of  a  child's  peculiar 
actions  or  disposition. 

16.  Children  should  be  treated  with  courtesy,  with 
real  courtesy;  that  is,  one  should  have  a  genuine 
respect  for  a  child's  feelings  and  person. 


SUGGESTIONS  ON  MANAGEMENT  3 

17.  Do  not  censure  trifling  errors  severely.  If  so, 
you  cannot  emphasize  serious  faults. 

18.  Scolding  the  school  is  a  bad  habit  to  fall  into. 
Avoid  censuring  a  child  in  the  class  and  before  the 
school.  In  general  reprove  privately  and  make  the 
reproof  effective. 

19.  Do  not  worry  over  little  noises  and  disturbances, 
if  the  children  are  working  heartily. 

20.  Use  your  eyes,  see  what  is  going  on  in  the  room, 
but  overlook  many  trivial  things. 

21.  Have  pupils  pass  through  the  halls  quietly, 
promptly,  and  in  line.  Execute  room  movements 
promptly  and  economically. 

22.  Competing  with  children  in  smartness  is  not 
worthy  of  a  teacher. 

23.  Do  not  punish  the  whole  class  for  the  fault  of 
one  or  two. 

24.  Children  should  not  be  boisterous  in  the  school 
house.     Outdoors  is  the  place  for  rougher  sports. 

25.  Corporal  punishment  is  only  for  extreme  cases, 
a  last  resort. 

26.  In  dealing  with  parents  use  patience  and  cour- 
tesy ;  show  them  fully  and  fairly  both  sides  of  the 
question  in  dispute.    Be  fair  and  reasonable. 

27.  Management  requires  thoughtful  deliberation, 
prompt  executive  energy,  and  judicial  fairness. 
These  three  superior  qualities  are  not  easily  combined 
in  one  person.    Each  teacher  must  school  himself 


4  HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

into  a  complex  habit  which  unites  these  contrasted 
qualities  into  a  working  unity. 

28.  The  skillful  management  of  children  is  a  social 
art  based  (1)  upon  insight  into  one's  own  feelings 
and  volitional  attitudes,  and  (2)  upon  the  individual 
and  social  impulses  that  reveal  themselves  in  the  life 
and  actions  of  children.  In  other  words,  one  must 
understand  himself  and  appreciate  children. 

29.  Government  necessarily  means  control,  and 
more  or  less  conflict  of  wills.  How  to  adjust  the  will 
of  the  teacher  to  the  will  of  the  child  and  to  the  com- 
bined social  will  of  the  school  is  the  ticklish  problem. 
It  demands  a  well-balanced  combination  of  the  three 
virtues  above  mentioned. 

30.  Give  the  children  full  credit  for  having  wills 
that  deserve  to  be  wisely  guided,  and  turned  into 
proper  channels  of  habit  until  freedom  of  self-control, 
based  upon  knowledge  of  what  is  right  and  fitting 
in  conduct,  is  developed. 

31.  The  spirit  of  good  will  and  cooperation,  and  the 
deliberate  purpose  to  practice  even-handed  justice, 
furnish  the  moral  basis  for  school  government. 

2.  Class  Control  combined  with  Room  Control 

1.  Before  beginning  the  recitation  provide  the 
study  class  with  plenty  of  work  to  do  and  make  the 
conditions  orderly  and  favorable  to  its  execution. 


SUGGESTIONS  ON  MANAGEMENT  5 

2.  Let  the  study  class  work  according  to  a  program 
posted  on  the  blackboard,  and  showing  the  plan 
for  each  day  in  the  week.  The  study  class  should 
not  be  noisy  and  intrusive  but  quiet  and  self-directive. 

3.  Let  the  teacher  take  a  good  position  before  the 
class  reciting  and  not  too  near  the  pupils. 

4.  Keep  the  class  together  and  closely  attentive 
to  the  teacher's  presentation  of  a  topic,  to  black- 
board demonstrations,  and  to  discussions  and  repro- 
ductions by  the  pupils.  Unity  of  class  spirit  m  a  com- 
bined effort  is  the  ideal  class  status. 

5.  In  concert  work  by  the  whole  class,  in  oral  drills 
and  tests,  make  the  class  effort  quick  and  energetic. 
Alternate  individual  and  concert  drills. 

6.  Shift  the  work  back  and  forth  between  the  slow 
pupils  and  the  quick  ones.  Do  not  wait  too  long 
for  the  slower  pupils  and  give  the  brighter  pupils 
a  good  share  of  attention.  Poorer  pupils  may  need 
a  second  and  a  third  chance. 

7.  With  a  class  at  the  blackboard,  watch  all  the 
pupils  and  keep  them  busy,  correcting  errors  with 
speed,  preventing  copying,  and  holding  to  a  standard 
of  neatness  and  good  form. 

8.  Keep  up  the  class  spirit,  but  do  not  lose  sight  of 
individuals.  This  requires  alertness  and  quick  transi- 
tions from  the  whole  class  to  individuals  and  vice  versa. 

9.  Get  a  proper  distribution  of  work  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  class  so  that  none  are  neglected  or  left  idle. 


6  HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

10.  Have  extra  work  in  readiness  for  brighter  pupils 
while  the  slower  ones  are  receiving  special  help.  Extra 
reference  work,  special  problems,  etc.,  should  be  pro- 
vided beforehand. 

n.  Children  should  be  held  to  a  firm  standing  posi- 
tion while  reciting.  In  questions  and  class  discus- 
sions avoid  hand  shaking  and  other  excessive  demon- 
strations. Self-control  and  moderation  in  pupils' 
behavior  are  the  standard. 

12.  Let  pupils  speak  out  in  full  tones  so  as  to  be 
clearly  heard.  Use  such  devices  and  such  ingenuity 
as  may  be  necessary  to  encourage  timid  pupils  to 
speak  clearly  and  confidently. 

13.  Encourage  children  to  watch  each  other  sharply 
for  errors  or  omissions,  but  without  unkind  and  trifling 
criticism.  A  helpful,  rather  than  critical  spirit  should 
be  encouraged. 

14.  The  more  forward  children  are  to  be  held  in 
check,  and  the  modest,  retiring  ones  encouraged  and 
called  into  action. 

15.  Save  time  by  quick  class  movements  and  well- 
planned,  orderly  arrangement  of  children  at  the 
blackboard. 

3.  Orderliness  in  School  Housekeeping 

1.  Care  and  thought  fulness  should  be  given  to 
the  heating  and  ventilating  of  the  room.     Proper 


SUGGESTIONS   ON  MANAGEMENT  7 

use  of  windows,  doors,  and  transoms,  without  exposing 
children  to  drafts.  Attention  to  the  thermometer 
and  to  janitor  service  require  cooperation. 

2.  During  physical  exercises  and  at  recess  especial 
additional  fresh-air  ventilation  may  be  provided  for. 

3.  The  lighting  from  the  windows  should  be  regu- 
lated and  modified  by  shades,  according  to  the  condi- 
tions of  the  weather,  sunshine,  morning  and  after- 
noon sun,  and  effects  upon  blackboards. 

4.  A  carefully  devised  program  for  the  day  and 
week  should  be  placed  where  it  can  be  easily  seen  by 
all  and  should  be  followed,  in  the  main,  so  as  to  estab- 
lish habits  of  study  and  diligent  attention  to  school 
duties.  A  reliable  clock  will  aid  materially  in  such  a 
plan. 

5.  The  desks  and  tables  throughout  the  room 
should  be  kept  in  neat  and  orderly  condition.  Waste 
papers  and  rubbish  should  be  collected  by  passing 
the  waste  basket. 

6.  Reference  and  library  books  may  be  conven- 
iently placed  for  use  by  the  children  and  left  in  their 
proper  place  and  position  after  use.  The  children 
may  well  be  trained  to  this  sort  of  order  and  neatness. 

7.  A  plan  for  the  definite  uses,  care,  and  cleaning 
of  the  blackboards  needs  to  be  worked  out.  One 
part  maybe  required  for  the  daily  and  weekly  program. 
Other  parts  should  be  used  regularly  for  the  assign- 
ment of  seat  or  home  lessons.     Still  another  may  be 


8  HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE   FOR  TEACHERS 

used  for  class  demonstrations,  especially  by  the 
teacher  in  Arithmetic,  Geography,  History,  etc. 
Other  parts  of  the  blackboard  may  be  reserved  for 
the  uses  of  children  who  are  sent  to  the  board  for  prob- 
lems, map  drawing,  composition,  etc.  Unused  work 
should  be  erased  and  the  boards  kept  clear. 

8.  The  maps,  globes,  charts,  pictures,  and  object 
material  used  for  demonstration  purposes  should  be 
kept  in  orderly  fashion  in  suitable  receptacles  and 
used  according  to  well-devised  plans.  Paper,  pencils, 
ink,  and  drawing  utensils  require  a  like  carefulness  and 
orderliness.  Materials  and  tools  for  construction, 
book  binding  and  sewing,  or  weaving  and  shop  work 
require  systematic,  businesslike  disposal  and  regu- 
lation. Orderliness  and  system  in  all  these  details 
are  indispensable.  There  should  be  adequate  places 
of  storage  and  time-saving  devices  for  distributing 
and  collecting  tools  and  materials. 

9.  The  movements  of  children  by  classes  and  as 
individuals  about  the  schoolroom  should  be  quick, 
orderly,  and  time-saving.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  see  the 
speed  and  quiet  with  which  these  movements  are 
made  in  a  well-ordered  school. 

10.  The  element  of  decoration  is  now  entering  as 
a  dominant  note  in  the  schoolroom  environment. 
Plants  and  flowers,  pictures  and  statuary,  are  prevail- 
ing influences,  and  teachers  are  giving  their  attention 
to  the  proper  placing  and  harmony  of  these  decorative 


SUGGESTIONS   ON  MANAGEMENT  9 

elements.  The  tinting  of  walls,  the  superior  wood 
finishes,  the  use  of  the  childrens'  drawings  and  paper 
work  add  much  to  these  pleasing  schoolroom  effects. 
When  we  add  to  this  good  music,  folk  songs  and  dances, 
and  dramatization  we  have  a  very  important  group 
of  aesthetic  and  culture  elements  that  is  making  its 
influence  strongly  felt. 

11.  School  property,  books,  furniture,  equipment, 
and  buildings,  also  grounds,  trees,  and  shrubbery, 
deserve  to  be  scrupulously  respected  and  cherished. 
The  old-fashioned  carving  of  desks  and  marring  of 
buildings,  the  defacing  of  walls,  and  other  vandalisms 
are  rapidly  becoming  obsolete.  The  social  and  aes- 
thetic spirit  are  becoming  dominant  and  such  lawless 
acts  are  felt  to  be  inappropriate. 

12.  Cleanliness  in  rooms,  toilets,  halls,  and  base- 
ment, the  avoidance  of  dust  on  floors,  blackboards, 
and  furniture,  neatness  and  cleanness  in  the  person 
and  dress  of  children  are  very  essential  elements  in 
the  right  sanitation  of  schoolrooms. 

13.  First-class  sanitary  conditions  as  provided  for 
by  the  thoughtful  attention  of  teachers,  and  reen- 
forced  by  the  trained  nurse  and  medical  inspection, 
provision  in  all  ways  against  contagious  and  infectious 
diseases,  —  these  are  not  luxuries  but  absolute  essen- 
tials for  the  care  and  protection  of  children  and  for 
the  happiness  and  welfare  of  the  homes  represented. 


CHAPTER  II 

TEACHERS 

i.  Superintendents,  Supervisors,  and  Critics 

i.  Superintendents  and  supervisors  represent  the 
larger  experience,  the  matured  judgment,  the  com- 
bination of  comprehensive  theory  with  daily  practice, 
which  are  needed  to  guide  and  encourage  the  less  ex- 
perienced in  their  difficult  work. 

2.  The  function  of  critics  and  of  superintendents 
who  closely  supervise  young  teachers  is  that  of  giving 
them  advice  and  direction  so  that  they  will  make  as 
few  mistakes  as  possible  and  waste  the  least  amount 
of  time  in  finding  their  way  into  skilled  habits  of 
teaching.  Working  under  the  direction  of  a  wise  and 
skillful  critic,  the  beginning  teacher  should  gain  rap- 
idly in  ability  to  manage  and  teach  a  school  and  should 
be  saved  from  years  of  more  or  less  wasted  and  mis- 
directed effort.  Young  teachers  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  form  habits  which,  at  a  later  time,  will  have 
to  be  laboriously  corrected. 

3.  The  superintendent  is  the  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  different  teachers  and  grades.     He  repre- 

10 


TEACHERS  II 

sents  the  larger,  continuous  aims  of  the  school,  and 
the  principle  of  continuity  in  growth  and  organiza- 
tion. The  underlying  principles  of  the  course  of  study 
and  the  broader  aims  of  education  are  in  his  mind,  and 
he  seeks  to  bring  all  of  his  teachers  into  cooperation 
for  these  common  ends. 

4.  To  keep  himself  in  touch  with  the  actual  diffi- 
culties of  teachers,  it  were  well  for  the  superintendent 
to  do  some  real  teaching,  not  in  the  form  of  occasional 
interruptions  of  teachers  in  their  class  work,  but  in 
the  handling  of  classes  in  complete  recitations,  in  which 
the  preparation  and  assignment  of  lessons  are  included 
and  the  topics  are  fully  worked  out.  If  the  clerical 
and  administrative  duties  of  superintendents  and  prin- 
cipals can  be  diminished  so  as  to  leave  time  for  some 
teaching,  it  will  be  of  practical  service  to  all  con- 
cerned. 

5.  The  critic  should  first  of  all  encourage  and  stim- 
ulate the  young  teachers,  exercising  at  the  same  time 
a  frank  criticism  of  faults  and  errors.  In  combin- 
ing encouragement  with  criticism  the  critic  is  a 
reconciler  of  contradictions.  Criticism  should  not 
usually  leave  the  sting  of  discouragement. 

6.  The  critic  or  supervisor  has  the  difficult  task  of 
exercising  a  dominating  influence  over  the  school 
and  over  the  younger  teachers,  while  keeping  herself 
in  the  background.  The  critic  and  the  beginner 
must  get  into  such  close  relationship  that  the  younger 


12       HANDBOOK   OF    PRACTICE   FOR  TEACHERS 

teacher  embodies  the  spirit  and  energy  of  the  critic 
without  feeling  cramped  or  overruled  in  her  actions. 
In  other  words,  young  teachers  should  maintain  their 
freedom  and  independence  while  under  the  helpful 
guidance  of  the  critic. 

7.  To  perform  this  task  the  critic  should  be  acces- 
sible and  companionable,  and  clearly  wise  and  practi- 
cal in  her  advice  and  suggestions.  She  must  know 
how  to  encourage  and  to  throw  responsibility  upon 
others. 

8.  The  supervisor  or  critic  is  the  exponent  of  the 
two  opposite  poles  of  education,  strong  ideals  and 
practical  skill  in  execution. 

9.  The  critic  should  be  fertile  in  ways  and  means  of 
illustrating  to  young  teachers  the  better  modes  of 
procedure,  and  likewise  in  showing  up  the  weaknesses 
of  faulty  methods. 

10.  Critic  teachers  should  follow  a  systematic  plan 
of  doing  some  daily  regular  teaching  as  a  means  of 
guidance  and  illustration  to  younger  teachers. 

11.  Illustrative  lessons,  taught  in  the  presence  of 
a  number  of  older  and  younger  teachers  and  then  freely 
discussed,  are  a  source  of  strength,  because  they 
greatly  emphasize  main  features  of  instruction  and 
give  a  broader  interpretation  to  principles. 

12.  In  the  variety  and  complexity  of  teaching 
processes,  young  teachers  are  slow  to  discriminate 
between    important    and    unimportant    ideas    and 


TEACHERS  13 

methods.  The  observation,  discussion,  and  criticism 
of  lessons  should  steadily  open  their  eyes  to  these 
essentials. 

13.  Every  supervisor  and  critic  should  make  a 
business  each  term  of  working  out  elaborately,  one  or 
more  of  the  larger  topics  or  units  of  study  which  hold 
an  important  place  in  some  school  subject.  This  is 
a  piece  of  original  work  that  calls  for  a  recombination 
of  the  principles  of  organization  as  applied  to  a  rich 
body  of  knowledge. 

14.  The  majority  of  teachers  in  the  United  States 
have  had  little  if  any  professional  preparation.  They 
are  in  the  process  of  growth  from  crude  into  rational 
methods.  The  responsibility  of  superintendents  and 
supervisors  for  the  steady  growth  and  improvement 
of  teachers  in  their  work  is  correspondingly  great. 

2.  General  Character  and  Qualifications  of  a  Teacher 

1.  Teachers  should  cultivate  a  liberal,  magnani- 
mous mental  attitude  in  contrast  to  littleness,  narrow- 
ness, and  pedantry. 

2.  They  should  be  well-balanced,  steady  and  judi- 
cious in  temper,  not  given  to  excess  or  partisanship, 
not  moody  and  freakish  or  violent  in  temper.  Self- 
control,  resulting  in  moderation  and  reasonableness, 
expresses  the  spirit  of  a  teacher  and  leader. 

3.  Manifest  cheerfulness  and  heartiness  of  manner 


14       HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

in  dealing  with  young  people  predispose  them  in  one's 
favor. 

4.  A  many-sided,  intelligent  sympathy  with  all 
sorts  of  young  people,  the  ability  to  put  yourself  in 
another's  place  and  appreciate  his  situation  and 
feelings  is  an  important  asset.  This  implies  breadth 
and  catholicity  of  mind,  a  friendly  and  helpful  attitude 
toward  others,  and  an  appreciation  of  varieties  of 
talent,  disposition,  and  personal  character. 

5.  Truth,  sincerity,  and  frankness  in  one's  conduct 
and  dealings  with  young  people  are  at  a  high  premium. 

6.  A  teacher  who  is  prepared  for  his  work  is  earnest 
and  energetic.  He  feels  a  serious  responsibility  and 
has  aims  and  standards  in  view  that  require  strenuous 
and  continuous  effort. 

7.  On  the  basis  of  experience  and  matured  convic- 
tion, he  is  prompt,  decisive,  and  steadily  progressive 
in  his  efforts. 

8.  He  is  clear-headed  in  his  plans  and  scholarly 
in  thought  and  speech. 

9.  His  standards  of  thoroughness  and  mastery 
in  school  studies  have  been  thought  out  in  proper 
adjustment  to  the  age  and  capacity  of  children. 

10.  A  pronounced  flexibility  of  temper,  and  a  quick 
versatility  in  shifting  one's  point  of  view  to  meet  new 
conditions  and  different  personalities  are  a  necessity 
for  teachers. 

11.  Ingenuity  in  planning  new  methods  of  study 


TEACHERS  15 

and  resourcefulness  in  the  details  of  discipline  and 
instruction  should  be  constantly  cultivated. 

12.  Teachers  can  afford  to  lay  their  plans  to  be 
physically  fresh  and  vigorous  so  as  to  meet  school 
duties  in  good  temper  and  with  a  strong  healthy  tone. 

13.  In  dress  and  manner  care  should  be  exercised 
to  be  neat,  tasteful,  and  attractive.  Good  manners 
and  suitable  dress  and  care  as  to  one's  person  are 
an  important  expression  of  respect  for  one's  calling 
and  for  the  children. 

14.  A  teacher  will  hold  his  own  better  in  all  respects 
if  he  is  well  posted  in  matters  of  general  information. 
Such  knowledge  commands  respect  and  shows  a 
broader  adjustment  to  life  experience  as  a  whole. 
In  general  lessons  before  the  school  a  teacher  may  do 
much  for  young  people  to  open  their  eyes  to  many 
important  problems  in  the  larger  life  out  of  school, 
which  they  will  soon  have  to  meet.  These  are  things, 
too,  which  children  are  anxious  to  know  about. 

15.  In  his  whole  character  and  attitude,  in  school 
and  out,  a  teacher  should  be  exemplary  without  affec- 
tation. That  is,  he  is  a  plain  and  definite  example 
of  right  things,  one  who  illustrates  in  conduct  what  he 
attempts  to  realize  in  the  children. 

16.  On  account  of  the  increasingly  social  character 
of  the  school,  social  temper  and  adroitness  on  the 
teacher's  part  have  become  one  of  his  essential 
qualifications.      The  interpretation  and  guidance  of 


16       HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE   FOR  TEACHERS 

social  spirit  in  school  groupings  and  combinations 
among  the  young  become  one  of  the  teacher's  chief 
functions. 

17.  A  ready  social  adjustment  and  freedom  of  con- 
tact with  the  homes,  with  business  and  church  and 
social  activities,  representing  broader  life  and  inter- 
ests of  the  community,  are  essential  qualities  in  the 
teacher's  make-up. 

18.  Teachers  are  entitled  to  a  feeling  of  pride  in  the 
exercise  of  their  professional  skill  and  efficiency.  One 
who  is  a  distinct  expert  in  the  management  and  in- 
struction of  the  young,  deserves  a  professional  stand- 
ing based  upon  the  highest  merit.  Teachers  them- 
selves should  prize  such  skill  as  a  high  distinction  and 
work  to  attain  it  as  their  most  distinctive  and  worthy 
achievement. 

19.  Besides  the  broad  liberal  qualifications  that 
belong  to  the  teacher  by  virtue  of  his  leadership  in 
guiding  children  into  those  general  forms  of  knowledge 
and  culture  common  and  essential  to  all,  he  requires 
special  and  peculiar  mental  qualities  in  the  particular 
subjects  of  study,  as  imagination  and  humor  in  litera- 
ture, logical  precision  in  arithmetic,  motor  skill  in 
manual  arts,  etc. 

20.  The  teacher  is  a  liberal-conservative  who  com- 
bines widely  variant  aims  and  superiorities  in  one 
person.  He  is  a  practical  utilitarian  and  a  hopeful 
idealist. 


TEACHERS  1 7 

21.  A  wise  teacher  is  liberal-minded  and  helpful 
toward  his  co-workers,  and  not  given  to  criticism 
and  complaints  against  his  associates.  Criticising 
the  work  done  by  a  previous  teacher  is  not  in  good 
taste.  Complaining  to  others  that  a  class  is  dull  or 
stupid  shows  lack  of  sympathy. 

22.  The  teacher  represents  a  very  wide  range  of 
interests  in  knowledge,  whether  in  nature  or  in  hu- 
man and  social  affairs.  These  elementary  subjects 
broaden  out  more  and  more  into  the  limitless  fields 
of  knowledge.  The  teacher  also  looks  ahead  and  fore- 
casts the  child's  future  work,  his  possible  vocational 
fitness.  It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  in  all  his 
activities  to  be  scholarly,  progressive,  versatile,  with 
many-sided  interests  for  the  present  and  the  future. 

3.  Difficulties  and  Faults  of  Inexperienced  Teachers 

1.  There  is  not  a  sufficient  breadth  of  attention 
to  cover  the  wide  range  of  things  requiring  simulta- 
neous notice.  The  teacher  learns  gradually  to  manage 
several  things  at  the  same  time.  Teaching  requires 
the  formation  of  a  complex  habit  of  attention  with 
alertness  and  quick  adjustment  to  many  things.  The 
young  teacher  is  called  upon  to  meet  this  exigency 
by  wise  planning  and  forethought  and  by  much  after- 
thought and  reflection  upon  his  previous  actions. 

2.  In  matters  of  discipline  there  is  a  lack  of  that 


l8       HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE   FOR   TEACHERS 

quiet  decision  and  promptness  in  action  that  command 
the  respect  and  confidence  of  children.  On  the  one 
side  there  may  be  overanxiety  and  indecision,  on  the 
other  side,  haste  and  severity  of  treatment.  Young 
teachers  are  likely  to  make  the  mistake  of  being  too 
stiff  and  arbitrary  or  too  easy  and  indulgent. 

3.  In  meeting  emergencies  in  discipline  young 
teachers  often  issue  their  orders  hastily  or  without 
reflection  and  make  threats  against  violations.  Hasty 
orders  and  threats  are  dangerous.  The  teacher  may 
easily  forget  to  execute  them  or  he  may  not  wish  to 
execute  them  when  the  time  comes.  Oftentimes  a 
threat  is  a  failure  to  do  what  ought  to  be  done  now. 
It  is  better  to  meet  emergencies  as  they  arise. 

4.  The  keenest  need  felt  by  young  teachers,  who 
are  not  at  first  strong  in  discipline,  is  some  means  of 
establishing  their  authority,  some  immediate  devices 
of  control  for  quelling  incipient  disorder.  Prompt, 
decisive  action  is  required  to  check  the  beginnings  of 
disorder.  By  reflection  and  ingenuity  young  teachers 
must  think  out  those  modes  of  action  by  which  they 
may  reenforce  their  personality  at  the  moment  of  trial. 
Curiously,  many  little  noises  and  disturbances  can  be 
overlooked.  The  teacher  must  have  a  blind  eye  to 
many  such  trivialities  and  a  quick  perception  for  those 
cases  where  the  question  of  order  is  really  at  stake. 

5.  Young  teachers  are  naturally  deficient  in  the 
power  to  organize  new  subject  matter,  especially  in 


TEACHERS  19 

complex  topics  which  are  treated  orally,  without 
a  textbook.  This  weakness  appears  first  in  project- 
ing the  main  outline  of  leading  points  and  second  in 
the  effort  to  adhere  to  such  an  outline  in  presenting 
and  discussing  the  subject  matter.  This  is  due  to  a 
failure  to  observe  a  logical  or  causal  sequence  in  the 
topics,  and  again  in  the  inability  to  discriminate 
between  important  and  unimportant  ideas  and  facts. 

6.  Young  teachers  are  especially  defective  in  seeing 
clearly  the  fundamental  lines  of  thought  that  run 
through  a  whole  study.  In  arithmetic  or  language 
certain  principles  run  through  the  course  in  the 
grades.  Somehow  the  textbooks  fail  to  bring  out 
this  connectedness  and  continuity  of  thought  and  the 
responsibility  lies  mainly  upon  the  teacher.  Mature 
and  careful  teachers  discover  this  underlying  unity 
and  make  it  the  basis  of  their  best  thought  work 
for  children. 

7.  Young  teachers  are  accustomed  to  run  too 
rapidly  over  the  main  topics  in  a  textbook.  In 
arithmetic,  for  example,  they  fail  to  realize  how  much 
drill,  what  variety  of  oral  problems  in  applications  of 
all  sorts,  is  necessary  to  master  percentage  and  other 
topics. 

8.  In  the  classroom  young  teachers  often  fail  to 
keep  up  steady  class  attention.  They  become  inter- 
ested in  individuals  and  lose  sight  of  and  control  of 
the  class.     They  have  not  yet  learned  to  strike  first 


20       HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE   FOR  TEACHERS 

for  strong  class  attention  and  incidentally  keep  an 
eye  on  individuals  who  require  occasional  attention. 
Teachers  should  cultivate  a  double  form  of  attention. 
9.  In  oral  work  and  in  the  discussion  of  topics, 
beginning  teachers  drift  too  much  into  a  develop- 
ment method.  They  are  afraid  of  telling  the  children 
a  few  necessary  things.  They  overdo  the  principle 
of  allowing  children  to  think  things  out  for  themselves. 

10.  On  the  other  hand,  teachers  help  children  too 
much  by  asking  them  too  many  easy  questions.  Thus 
arises  loose  and  inconsequent  discussion  and  much 
loss  of  time.  This  brings  out  the  fact  that  teachers 
are  not  skillful  in  withholding  help  when  it  is  not 
needed  and  in  giving  it  in  cases  of  real  need.  One 
should,  as  it  were,  see  into  a  child's  mind  and  deter- 
mine wisely  whether  he  needs  to  be  thrown  back  upon 
his  own  resources  or  is  in  deep  water  and  requires 
help. 

11.  Young  teachers  often  fail  to  make  important 
ideas  in  the  lesson  definite  and  clear  to  pupils'  under- 
standing. At  the  end  of  the  recitation  not  much 
real  progress  has  been  made  in  the  clarification  of 
ideas.  The  class  may  be  seemingly  attentive  and  the 
work  progressive,  but  there  is  a  sort  of  haze  in  the 
intellectual  atmosphere.  Things  are  not  sharply 
defined. 

12.  Often  there  is  more  or  less  of  interesting  talk 
and  discussion,  but  the  children  fail  to  sum  up  the 


TEACHERS  21 

matter  and  give  a  clear  and  adequate  statement 
of  results.  In  most  lessons  teachers  should  see  to 
it  that  the  important  ideas  and  facts  are  well  clinched. 

13.  Young  teachers  often  lack  in  clearness  and 
simplicity  of  speech.  As  quickly  as  possible  they 
should  adjust  themselves  to  the  needs  of  children. 
Some  young  teachers,  taking  their  cue  from  their 
elders,  talk  too  much. 

14.  In  assigning  lessons,  it  is  easy  to  give  too  much, 
and  careful  judgment  is  required.  Often  the  assign- 
ment is  indefinite  and  ambiguous.  A  class  will  soon 
go  to  pieces  on  poor  assignments.  Reference  work 
should  be  precise,  noting  chapter  and  pages. 

15.  At  first  teachers  are  naturally  deficient  in  re- 
sourcefulness with  respect  to  illustrative  materials 
and  devices.  Steady  improvement  in  the  ability 
to  illustrate  and  concrete  ideas  is  a  professional  obli- 
gation upon  every  teacher. 

4.  Growth  of  Teachers 

Teachers,  while  engaged  in  their  professional  duties, 
have  unusual  opportunity  for  growth.  In  fact,  one 
can  hardly  be  a  good  teacher  without  constantly 
improving  and  expanding  one's  mental  resources. 
Some  of  the  ways  in  which  a  progressive  and  spirited 
teacher  may  grow  in  culture  and  professional  resources 
are  pointed  out  as  follows : 


22       HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE   FOR  TEACHERS 

i.  A  few  important  professional  books  should  find 
their  way,  not  simply  into  the  teacher's  library,  but 
also  into  his  more  serious  thought,  having  been  care- 
fully read  and  digested.  A  few  of  the  interesting  and 
vital  books  may  be  mentioned  as  follows:  Herbert 
Spencer's  "Education,"  James'  " Talks  to  Teachers," 
Rousseau's  "Ernile,"  De  Guimp's  "Life  of  Pestalozzi," 
Quick's  "Educational  Reformers,"  Locke's  "Thoughts 
on  Education,"  Monroe's  "History  of  Education," 
Pestalozzi's  "Leonard  and  Gertrude,"  Kirkpatrick's 
"Fundamentals  of  Child  Study." 

2.  Summer  sessions  at  the  Normal  Schools  and 
Universities  offer  not  only  stimulating  and  practical 
courses  in  pedagogical  subjects,  but  also  full  courses  in 
literature,  history,  natural  science,  language,  mathe- 
matics, and  all  the  academic  subjects. 

3.  If  a  teacher  wishes  to  specialize  in  some  chosen 
field  of  study,  as  in  history  or  science,  the  summer 
schools,  libraries,  and  laboratories  are  at  his  disposal, 
and,  without  giving  up  the  regular  work  of  instruction, 
many  teachers  are  pursuing  advance  courses  and  fit- 
ting themselves  for  higher  specialized  forms  of  teach- 
ing. 

4.  The  long  summer  vacations  are  also  used  for 
travel  in  this  country  and  Europe.  The  experiences 
and  broader  outlook  upon  the  world  supplied  by  travel 
are  among  the  important  agencies  for  the  better  equip- 
ment of  teachers,  especially  in  common  school  work. 


TEACHERS  23 

5.  A  knowledge  of  local  affairs,  of  the  details  of 
town  and  municipal  problems,  of  current  events  in 
the  larger  world  of  business,  politics,  and  social  reform 
is  a  desirable  outfit  for  teachers.  A  familiarity  with 
history,  economics,  and  sociology  of  the  practical  sort, 
which  enables  one  to  discuss  current  events  with 
children,  is  a  very  important  equipment  for  the  teacher. 
The  general  exercises  in  which  such  matters  are  dis- 
cussed are  a  valuable  means  of  opening  the  minds  of 
children  to  many  worldly  and  useful  matters  not  dealt 
with  in  school  studies. 

6.  In  addition  to  the  general  carefulness  and  effi- 
ciency of  his  work,  each  teacher  should  be  engaged 
in  some  special  field  of  instruction,  in  which  he  is 
elaborating  from  time  to  time,  complete  and  more 
fully  organized  topics,  as  demonstrations  of  matured 
and  even  artistic  teaching.  One  cannot  do  this  in 
all  subjects  at  the  same  time,  nor  in  several  topics  at 
once.  But  picking  out  some  important  unit  of  study, 
in  a  favorite  subject,  the  teacher  should  collect  and 
organize  a  superior  body  of  knowledge,  commit  it  to 
writing,  and  execute  the  plan  in  full  in  the  class- 
room. 

This  is  a  kind  of  specialization  in  which  every 
teacher  can  engage  with  the  highest  profit.  The 
ability  to  do  this  kind  of  work  in  one  study  is  likely 
to  spread  its  influence  to  others. 

7.  Some  teachers  prefer  departmental  teaching  in 


24   HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

one  or  two  subjects.  This  requires  special  richness 
and  mastery  of  knowledge  in  those  subjects,  and  has 
the  advantage  of  creating  greater  interest  in  both 
teachers  and  classes.  Preparation  for  this  quality  of 
work  can  be  made  at  the  advanced  schools,  or  by 
the  special  elaboration  of  topics  as  suggested  above. 

8.  For  the  general  body  of  teachers  the  most  sig- 
nificant line  of  advance  is  found  in  extending  one's 
acquaintance  with  school  studies  beyond  the  text- 
books into  the  more  lively  and  interesting  material 
found  in  good  literature,  in  history,  science,  and 
geography.  The  textbooks  offer  but  a  meager  diet 
either  for  teachers  or  children.  Just  beyond  these 
textbook  outlines  and  condensations  is  a  remarkably 
fruitful  range  of  studies  in  special  books  and  periodicals, 
geographical  magazines,  biography  and  travel,  which 
furnish  all  that  is  desirable  as  a  reenforcement  for 
genuine  instruction.  Such  books  are  abundant  and 
are  being  rapidly  supplied  in  the  main  studies. 

9.  In  this  country,  where  many  teachers  undertake 
their  work  without  adequate  preparation,  it  is  es- 
pecially desirable  that  they  should  utilize  these 
various  means  for  professional  improvement  and 
advance. 


CHAPTER  III 

CHILDREN 

i.  Child  Study 

i .  Reasons  why  teachers  should  make  some  special 
effort  to  understand  children : 

a.  Children  are  distinctly  and  radically  different 
from  grown  people. 

b.  Most  of  us  as  adults  are  a  little  out  of  sympathy 
with  children  and  are  disposed  to  set  up  the  same  stand- 
ards for  them  as  for  adults. 

c.  The  formality  of  school  discipline  and  instruc- 
tion keeps  us  at  a  distance  from  children  and  prevents 
us  often  from  understanding  them. 

d.  Because  of  misjudging  children  we  make  mis- 
takes in  managing  and  instructing  them. 

e.  Children  show  their  individual  traits  in  a  great 
variety  of  ways,  and  we  must  cultivate  the  power  of 
insight  and  of  interpretation  of  their  actions. 

/.  More  than  anything  else  we  need  to  understand 
children,  not  only  in  their  normal  intellectual  activities, 
but  in  their  bodily  states  and  defects,  their  feelings, 
impulses,  and  interests  at  different  stages  of  growth. 

25 


26        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

2.  "To  study  the  outer  and  inner  factors  of  human 
development,  and  to  determine  how  the  inner  factors 
are  modified  by  the  outer,  is  the  work  of  child  study." 
(Kirkpatrick.) 

3.  Some  children  in  a  school  are  deserving  of  in- 
dividual study,  i.e.  of  closer  observation  and  of  de- 
liberate effort  to  understand,  and  rightly  interpret 
them.  There  are  indeed  special  and  peculiar  cases, 
even  incorrigibles.  Some  of  these  ought  to  be  iso- 
lated from  the  school  and  receive  special  attention 
from  those  who  have  time  for  it. 

4.  The  natural  groupings  of  children  according  to 
social  instinct  also  deserve  study  :  the  ways  in  which 
they  influence  one  another,  their  modes  of  cooperation, 
and  their  antagonisms. 

5.  The  natural  leaders  in  a  school  are  to  be  noted 
and  their  influence  gained  and  guided  by  the  teacher. 

6.  The  physical  defects  and  diseases  of  children 
have  become  an  important  object  of  study,  with  the 
purpose  of  improving  health  and  sanitary  conditions 
in  the  school.  Teachers  and  parents  alike  have  over- 
looked ailments  of  throat  and  nose,  and  defects  of 
seeing  and  hearing ;  but  now  a  closer  and  more  effi- 
cient inspection  of  these  troubles  is  demanded  in 
which  teachers  and  nurses  or  medical  experts  coop- 
erate. 

7.  Children  express  themselves  far  more  freely 
out  of  doors  and  at  play  than  under  the  constraints 


CHILDREN  27 

of  the  school.  The  playground  offers  a  favorable 
opportunity  for  discovering  children's  dispositions  and 
peculiarities.  Even  the  games  and  rhythmic  actions 
of  the  schoolroom  open  children's  minds  and  feelings 
so  that  we  can  look  in.  Outdoor  excursions  are  also 
a  means  of  closer  companionship  and  acquaintance. 

8.  When  children  become  really  interested  in  their 
school  studies,  and  when  they  are  allowed  initiative 
and  responsibility  for  doing  things,  their  real  charac- 
ter comes  out  for  inspection. 

9.  Teachers  should  observe  the  instinctive  inter- 
ests of  children  as  they  spring  up,  grow  strong,  and  in 
turn  give  way  to  those  later  arising.  These  interests 
may  be  drawn  into  close  relation  to  some  of  the  school 
studies. 

10.  What  are  called  children's  books,  especially 
those  that  really  appeal  to  them,  are  deserving  of 
study  as  a  means  of  child  interpretation.  A  good 
story  is  a  revelation  of  the  child's  self,  and  its  effect 
can  be  seen.  The  reading  and  reproduction  of  suit- 
able stories  and  poems  with  children  give  an  excellent 
phase  of  child  study. 

1 1 .  Respect  for  the  rights  and  privileges  of  children 
is  a  first  duty  of  teachers.  Many  children  are  very 
sensitive  to  any  discourtesy  or  injustice  on  the  part  of 
their  elders. 

12.  A  few  of  the  helpful  books  on  child  study  may 
be  noted  as  follows :  "Fundamentals  of  Child  Study," 


28        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

Kirkpatrick;  "Children's  Rights,"  Wiggin;  "The 
Development  of  the  Child,"  Oppenheim;  "Diary 
of  a  Western  Schoolmaster,"  Stableton;  "Being  a 
Boy,"  Warner;  "Story  of  a  Bad  Boy,"  Aldrich. 

2.  Common  Faults  of  Children 

The  faults  mentioned  below  may  be  partly  due  to 
the  school,  partly  to  the  home,  and  partly  to  other 
influences. 

i.  There  is  a  lack  of  strong  power  of  attention  or 
concentration  of  effort  in  study  and  in  classroom 
work.  The  influence  of  the  school  should  be  to  cul- 
tivate and  strengthen  this  power.  Our  common  school 
standards  in  this  respect  should  be  put  at  a  higher 
mark.  A  flitting  attention  and  vagrancy  of  thought 
are  too  much  permitted  in  classrooms. 

2.  A  deficiency  of  independent  thinking  and  self- 
reliant  effort  is  seen  on  the  part  of  older  children. 
The  school  should  be  constantly  setting  up  problems 
which  call  out  self-activity  and  self-reliance. 

3.  In  the  schoolroom  children  often  talk  in  low 
and  indistinct  tones.  A  habit  of  timidity  and  lack 
of  confidence  is  developed  which  interferes  with  good 
classroom  work. 

4.  Very  commonly  children  fail  to  express  thought 
in  complete  sentences,  and  in  connected  discourse. 
They  answer  and  recite  too  much  in  fragments  and 


CHILDREN  29 

broken  sentences.  The  ability  to  express  thought 
in  a  series  of  connected  statements  in  a  whole  para- 
graph or  topic  requires  steady  cultivation.  The  habit 
of  using  faulty  English  and  slang  is  so  common  that 
the  school  is  obliged  to  set  up  a  good  standard  of 
speech. 

5.  Children  easily  form  the  habit  of  raising  the 
hand  and  shaking  it  violently  in  class  work.  It  is  a 
disturbing  habit,  discourteous  to  the  one  reciting  and 
tending  to  undue  nervous  excitement  of  the  class  as 
a  whole.  Quiet  manners  and  self-control  are  more 
conducive  to  good  thinking  and  reciting. 

6.  Children  stand  in  a  lounging  position  at  their 
seats  and  desks  while  reciting.  Such  an  attitude  is 
disorderly,  careless,  and  lowers  the  tone  of  the  class 
recitation. 

7.  During  study  periods  children  sit  in  careless 
and  lounging  positions,  and  show  by  their  bodily 
attitude  a  relaxed  mental  state. 

8.  In  the  regular  written  work  of  the  schools, 
children  hand  in  papers  that  are  torn,  careless,  and 
poorly  written .  Boys  especially  are  negligent  and  pro- 
duce unsightly  papers.  Teachers  should  hold  to 
standards  of  neatness  and  correctness. 

9.  In  some  classes  children  talk  out  too  freely 
when  not  called  upon,  showing  a  boldness  bordering 
on  insubordination.  Let  them  express  themselves 
when  called  upon,  and  with  self-control  and  courtesy. 


30        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

10.  Some  children  are  careless  and  slovenly  in  per- 
sonal habits.  For  their  own  sake  and  for  the  sake  of 
the  other  children,  they  should  be  required  to  be  clean 
and  neat. 

n.  Carelessness  in  scattering  waste  papers  and 
scraps,  and  a  disorderly  condition  in  the  desks,  easily 
develop  in  schools.  Desks  should  be  kept  in  orderly 
form  and  the  waste  basket  passed  regularly. 

12.  Children,  even  from  good  families,  sometimes 
become  sly  and  tricky  in  little  disorders,  disturbing 
the  discipline  and  social  welfare  of  the  school.  Prompt 
and  decisive  measures  are  required  to  establish  respect 
and  authority. 

13.  Children  studying  together  from  the  same  book 
usually  do  more  visiting  than  studying,  and  create 
disturbance.  It  is  a  concession  that  lowers  the  stand- 
ard of  efficient  work. 

14.  Some  children  practice  rude  and  unsocial  ac- 
tions on  the  playground.  The  plays  and  recesses  of 
the  children  require  watchful  supervision. 

3.  Social  Combinations  among  Children ,  Beneficial 

and  Hurtful 

The  natural  social  spirit  among  young  folks  prompts 
them  to  combine  their  forces  and  to  cooperate  in  larger 
and  smaller  groups  for  common  ends.  These  social 
combinations  are  sometimes  helpful  in   reenforcing 


CHILDREN  31 

the  proper  work  of  the  school.  In  other  cases  they 
are  antagonistic  and  damaging  to  its  welfare.  A 
wise  teacher  will  learn  to  be  shrewd  in  interpreting 
and  directing  the  social  tendencies  and  aims  of  young 
people.  The  social  intelligence  of  teachers  should 
be  liberal  and  sympathetic  as  a  means  of  understand- 
ing their  affinities  and  motives. 

The  social  spirit  of  young  people  manifests  itself 
in  some  of  its  beneficial  ways  as  follows : 

1.  In  music  and  singing.  In  fact,  music  is  one  of 
the  best  modes  of  inducting  children  into  the  higher 
phases  of  congenial  thought  and  sentiment. 

2.  The  class  discussion  of  interesting  topics,  espe- 
cially those  having  a  social  importance  touching  the 
welfare  of  many  persons.  Topics  for  general  exercises 
should  also  reveal  this  elevating  social  value. 

3.  Cooperation  in  working  up  and  presenting 
plays  and  dramatic  performances.  Such  exercises, 
well  conducted,  have  a  wide-reaching  social  and  prac- 
tical value  for  all  concerned. 

4.  The  folk  dances  and  rhythm  work  of  primary 
classes  introduce  children,  in  the  happiest  way,  to 
social  proprieties  and  right  social  spirit. 

5.  The  games  of  children,  both  within  doors  and 
out,  may  be  directed  so  as  to  express  the  joy  and  love 
of  action  in  children  in  cooperative  ways. 

6.  Gymnastic  drills  and  group  exercises. 

7.  The  marching  to  music  in  passing  to  and  fro. 


32        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

8.  Some  of  the  economies  of  schoolroom  organiza- 
tion are  best  provided  for  by  social  helpfulness,  as  in 
the  distribution  or  collection  by  the  children  of  books, 
papers,  pencils,  paint  boxes,  scissors,  and  other  mate- 
rials and  tools. 

9.  Spelling  matches  and  other  contests  may  be 
conducted  so  as  to  develop  a  lively  and  cordial 
spirit. 

10.  The  working  out  of  group  constructions 
and  projects  in  the  manual  arts,  and  in  school- 
room decoration,  in  making  furniture  for  school 
uses,  etc. 

11.  In  societies  and  debating  clubs  properly  con- 
ducted, this  cooperative  spirit  can  be  encouraged, 
and  the  social  leaders  brought  out. 

12.  Outdoor  excursions  and  nature  study  trips  are 
socially  important. 

Some  of  the  hurtful  tendencies  along  social  lines 
may  be  designated  as  follows : 

1.  Connivance  in  various  forms  of  mischief,  as  in 
note  writing,  whispering,  disturbing  noises  with  hands 
or  feet,  common  obstinacy  in  not  learning  or  reciting 
lessons,  etc. 

2.  Noisy  and  boisterous  actions  in  class  marching 
and  movements. 

3.  A  disposition  to  conceal  or  cover  up  wrong 
actions  and  practices  on  the  ground  of  not  exposing 
one  another.    No  tattling,  etc. 


CHILDREN  33 

4.  Disturbing  and  more  or  less  noisy  demonstra- 
tions in  the  class ;  pertness  in  talking  out  and  interrupt- 
ing teacher  and  class. 

5.  A  spirit  of  sullenness  or  resentment  exhibited 
by  a  whole  class  because  of  some  mistake  or  fault  of 
the  teacher. 

6.  The  formation  of  cliques  and  of  small  social 
groups  of  a  narrow  or  exclusive  sort,  clannish  among 
themselves  and  unfriendly  toward  others. 

7.  The  formation  of  groups  in  which  a  covert  or 
secret  antagonism  toward  the  teacher  is  developed. 

8.  Excessive  rivalry  for  prizes,  high  standing  in 
classes,  or  distinctions,  produces  unsocial  and  hostile 
feelings. 

9.  In  certain  groups,  in  and  out  of  the  school, 
complaining  gossips  bring  on  antagonism  against 
the  teacher. 

The  strong  leadership  of  individuals  in  these  various 
forms  of  grouping,  and  the  social  response  of  the  mem- 
bers under  such  leadership,  deserve  the  teacher's 
thoughtful  and  unprejudiced  study. 

The  combining  or  cooperating  spirit  is  strong  in 
children.  The  teacher's  business  is  not  to  suppress 
it,  but  to  give  it  direction,  to  bring  it  into  such  forms 
as  reenforce  the  true  life  and  activity  of  the  school 
as  a  social  organization.  The  proper  socializing  of 
children  through  the  various  cooperative  agencies 
of  the  school,  by  setting  up  social  ideals  and  by  encour- 


V 


34        HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE   FOR  TEACHERS 

aging  appropriate  conduct,  is  one  of  the  highest  func- 
tions of  the  school. 

The  social  groupings  and  tendencies  of  children  and 
youth  have  become  more  recently  an  important  object 
of  study  for  educators.  For  the  best  uses  in  teaching 
the  study  of  sociology  is  rapidly  developing  into  an 
importance  quite  equal  to  that  of  psychology. 


CHAPTER  IV 

CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION 

i.  The  Planning  of  Lessons  for  Classroom  Work 

i.  The  planning  of  lessons  should  be  based  first 
of  all  upon  the  larger  topic  or  whole  which  is  being 
treated  in  a  series  of  lessons.  The  lesson  for  a  single 
day  is  usually  but  a  fragment  of  this  large  topic. 
For  example,  the  process  of  adding  fractions  is  such  a 
topic.  A  poem  like  "The  Barefoot  Boy,"  or  a  story 
like  "The  Great  Stone  Face,"  is  such  a  complete  topic 
involving  a  series  of  lessons.  In  history  or  geography 
one  of  the  larger  topics,  like  "Burgoyne's  Invasion," 
or  "The  Rhine  River,"  or  the  "Sahara  Desert,"  may 
require  a  dozen  lessons  for  a  proper  treatment. 

2.  In  planning  lessons  the  basal  idea  in  one  of  these 
large  topics  should  be  grasped  as  the  organizing  prin- 
ciple which  determines  the  sequence  of  main  headings. 
To  explain  and  clear  up  this  idea,  to  show  its  im- 
portance and  value  in  the  world,  is  the  purpose  of  the 
series  of  lessons.  In  the  growth  of  this  idea  is  found 
the  logical  continuity  of  the  whole  topical  treat- 
ment. 

35 


$6       HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

3.  This  topic  should  be  thought  of  and  worked 
out  as  a  complete  whole,  without  regard  at  first  to 
the  individual  lessons  and  with  complete  mastery 
of  the  whole  before  the  first  lesson  is  taught.  In  fact, 
we  cannot  estimate  accurately,  at  first,  how  many 
lessons  will  be  required  to  complete  the  topic.  As 
in  the  building  of  a  house,  the  architect's  plan  is  com- 
plete before  the  first  day's  work  is  begun. 

4.  In  addition  to  this,  young  teachers  should  work 
out  elaborately  the  individual  lesson  a  day  ahead, 
going  into  fuller  details  as  to  plan,  method,  and  mate- 
rial. With  growing  experience  and  skill,  this  de- 
tailed planning  can  be  much  reduced.  It  is  tedious 
and  unnecessary  to  work  out  exact  lesson  plans  several 
days  ahead. 

5.  A  strong  logical  or  causal  sequence,  expressed  in 
the  form  of  a  series  of  main  headings,  must  be  thought 
out  as  the  framework  for  the  whole  topic.  In  doing 
this,  one  should  learn  to  discriminate  sharply  between 
big  central  points  and  the  subordinate  facts  or  details 
which  are  grouped  around  them.  One  cannot  make 
such  plans  without  full  and  rich  knowledge,  nor  with- 
out carefully  weighing  out  and  estimating  relative 
values.  The  teacher  is  under  the  necessity  of  being 
a  scholar  and  an  organizing  thinker. 

6.  A  difficult  question  to  settle  is,  how  much  of 
concrete  data  (illustrative  or  descriptive,  facts  or 
objects,  pictures,  maps  and  diagrams)  is  required  to 


CLASSROOM   INSTRUCTION  37 

bring  out  clearly  the  main  organizing  idea  in  the  topic  ? 
In  important  topics  a  very  rich  background  of  illus- 
trative and  concrete  material  is  necessary,  much 
greater,  indeed,  than  our  textbooks  usually  supply. 
The  teacher  may  become  an  expert  in  selecting  and 
grouping  this  concrete  data  around  the  central  points. 

7.  In  getting  the  materials  of  such  a  large  topic 
before  children  for  their  proper  mastery  and  assimila- 
tion, the  teacher  must  hold  strongly  to  his  well-planned 
outline.  He  will  use  skill  in  presentation,  free  discus- 
sion, question  and  answer,  as  important  means  for 
realizing  the  matured  plan  of  organization. 

8.  On  the  basis  of  this  plan  the  children  will  be 
held  to  a  reasonably  complete  oral  or  written  repro- 
duction of  the  main  substance  of  thought.  Such 
reproductions  and  the  free  use  of  blackboard  sketch- 
ing or  drawing,  together  with  maps,  pictures,  and  other 
modes  of  concrete  illustration,  are  chiefly  valuable  as 
means  for  clarifying  and  emphasizing  the  simple  basal 
outline  of  topics. 

9.  To  work  out  a  well-organized  plan  for  the  treat- 
ment of  a  topic  requires  studious,  thoughtful,  scholarly 
mental  effort ;  to  hold  firmly  to  this  outline  through 
the  shifting  vicissitudes  of  lively  class  instruction  and 
discussion  is  a  far  more  difficult  task. 

10.  In  the  full  planning  and  treatment  of  such  large 
topics,  one  danger  is  that  of  spreading  out  too  much 
into    interesting,   multitudinous    details.    Excellent 


38        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

teachers  are  tempted  by  the  richness  of  the  thought 
materials  to  overelaborate  the  topics  and  to  run  off 
on  side  issues.  The  main  difficulty  is  that  of  keeping 
up  a  proper  balance  between  the  illustrative  facts  and 
details  and  the  important  central  ideas. 

n.  In  the  oral  presentation  and  discussion  of  these 
large  topics  each  important  heading  often  requires 
the  solution  of  a  problem,  the  thoughtful  weighing 
of  facts  to  reach  some  important  result,  i.e.  independ- 
ent thinking  and  reasoning.  In  many  of  these  large 
topics  we  have  simply  a  series  of  interesting  and 
thought-provoking  problems  to  solve,  e.g.  in  his- 
tory, geography,  and  science. 

12.  The  fundamental  idea  involved  in  the  develop- 
ment of  one  of  these  large  topics  needs  to  be  released 
from  the  narrow  local  surroundings  in  which  it  is  first 
clearly  discovered  and  its  applicability  to  a  far  wider 
field  of  experience  shown.  By  comparisons  on  a  wider 
scale,  this  larger,  more  nearly  universal,  meaning  and 
value  of  the  idea  is  gradually  brought  to  light. 

13.  To  institute  and  carry  forward  a  series  of  com- 
parisons by  which  a  local  concept  expands  into  a  na- 
tional or  even  world  idea,  points  out  the  second  stage 
in  the  handling  of  a  large  topic.  This  step  of  com- 
parison, with  the  inferences  and  enlargement  of 
thought  involved,  opens  up  great  possibilities  to  in- 
struction. Teachers  have  been  slow  to  seize  this  ad- 
vantage and  to  develop  this  phase  of  progressive, 
self-reliant  thinking. 


CLASSROOM   INSTRUCTION  39 

14.  The  final  step  in  this  extended  thought  move- 
ment is  a  present-day  application  of  this  idea  to  so- 
ciety, a  problem  in  which  this  idea  is  trying  to  realize 
itself  under  present  conditions. 

15.  In  working  out  the  plan  for  individual  daily 
lessons,  on  the  basis  of  the  larger  plan  of  a  whole 
topic,  the  special  form  of  questions,  the  sort  of  illus- 
trative examples,  the  use  of  pictures,  maps  and  dia- 
grams, board  work,  drills  and  reviews,  the  comparisons 
and  applications  can  be  worked  out  in  detail. 

16.  In  closing  the  treatment  of  one  of  these  large 
topics  a  decisive  test,  oral  or  written,  of  the  children's 
knowledge  and  mastery  of  the  subject  should  be  made. 
The  principal  or  supervisor  may  do  this  to  the  best 
advantage.  Success  depends  upon  the  thoroughness 
with  which  the  class  as  a  whole  has  accomplished  its 
tasks. 

17.  These  large  topics  constitute  milestones  in  the 
children's  progress  in  knowledge  and  thinking  power. 
The  careful  planning  or  laying  out  of  such  topical  cam- 
paigns of  study  and  their  classroom  treatment  involve 
the  use  of  all  the  principles  of  classroom  instruction. 

2.  Exercises  not  Involved  in  the  Larger  Organized 
Topics  of  Study 

Much  of  the  subject  matter  of  school  studies  does 
not  fall  within  the  scope  of  the  regular  treatment  of 


40        HANDBOOK   OF   PRACTICE   FOR  TEACHERS 

these  large  well-organized  topics  of  study.  Besides 
important  exercises,  reviews  and  drills,  there  are 
formal  elements  to  be  mastered  and  a  few  odds  and 
ends  of  useful  knowledge  which  He  apart  and  must 
not  be  overlooked.  Among  them  are  the  following: 
i.  The  spelling  of  miscellaneous  lists  of  words. 
Where  rules  of  spelling  can  be  worked  out  and  applied, 
rules  should  be  developed,  but  much  of  our  spelling 
is  arbitrary  and  exceptional. 

2.  The  mastery  of  phonetic  elements  in  primary 
reading  as  a  means  of  more  quickly  acquiring  the  art 
of  reading.  This  requires  separate  drills  in  the  rec- 
ognition and  use  of  forms. 

3.  Special  phonetic  drill  in  intermediate  and 
grammar  grades  is  a  side  issue  to  reading. 

4.  Learning  the  use  of  dictionaries,  encyclopedias, 
and  reference  books  is  a  special  art. 

5.  Important  drills  on  miscellaneous  names  and 
places  in  geography,  on  facts  and  periods  in  history, 
should  be  provided. 

6.  Varied  and  repeated  problems  for  speed  and 
mastery  in  mental  arithmetic;  especially  practical 
miscellaneous  problems. 

7.  The  quick  sketching  of  maps  in  geography  and 
history.     Drills  in  latitude  and  longitude,  etc. 

8.  Exercises  in  writing  and  the  mastery  of  the 
formal  elements  in  composition. 

9.  Dictation  exercises  in  language  work. 


CLASSROOM   INSTRUCTION  41 

10.  Grammatical  analysis  of  sentences,  and  dia- 
gramming. 

11.  Physical  exercises,  games  and  gymnasial  prac- 
tice. 

12.  General  exercises  and  current  news. 

13.  The  study  of  idioms  and  the  correction  of  com- 
mon errors  in  speech. 

14.  Review  tests  and  examinations  in  various 
studies. 

Even  in  the  treatment  of  large  well-organized  topics 
of  study,  there  is  much  danger  of  neglecting  the  re- 
views, drills,  and  tests  on  the  facts  and  outlines. 
Teachers  are  prone  to  overlook  the  importance  and 
even  necessity  of  such  exercises,  and  the  children  fail 
to  fix  the  important  facts  and  relations.  We  have 
made  the  frequent  mistake  of  supposing  that  children 
will  pick  up  these  elements  of  knowledge  incidentally 
without  specific  effort.  Many  things  they  do  get 
indirectly,  but  thoroughness  and  mastery  of  knowledge 
are  not  gained  by  haphazard  or  careless  methods. 

3.  Oral  Instruction  and  the  Development  Method 

1.  The  oral  treatment  of  topics  in  contrast  to  the 
textbook  method  of  study  has  come  into  general  use, 
in  the  story-telling  of  primary  grades,  in  handling 
geography,  history,  and  nature  study  topics  in  inter- 
mediate grades,  and  even  in  treating  important  sub- 


42        HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE   FOR   TEACHERS 

jects  in  upper  grades.  In  some  cases  the  subject 
matter  is  presented  in  the  story-telling  or  lecture  form 
by  the  teacher,  in  other  cases  a  method  of  question 
and  discussion,  or  development,  is  used. 

2.  The  first  essential  for  good  oral  instruction  is  the 
complete  and  thorough  organization  of  the  subject 
matter  in  the  teacher's  mind.  The  basis  for  such 
organization  is  a  close  logical  series  of  main  points 
for  the  whole  topic,  around  which  the  necessary  facts 
and  ideas  are  grouped. 

3.  This  organization  of  knowledge  materials  in  an 
important  topic,  which  includes  not  only  the  basal 
outline,  but  all  the  facts  necessary  to  its  proper  elabo- 
ration, requires  a  high  grade  of  constructive  thinking. 
It  presupposes  not  only  a  full  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject, but  original  power  in  selecting  the  central  ideas 
in  the  argument,  their  arrangement  into  an  orderly 
series,  and  the  artistic  grouping  of  the  interesting 
details  about  these  centers. 

4.  It  will  not  seem  strange  if  many  even  experienced 
and  capable  teachers  have  not  acquired  much  power 
in  this  difficult  art  of  organization.  Most  of  our 
teachers  have  been  trained  in  textbook  methods 
where  the  organization  is  given  outright,  and  our 
schools  have  not  been  strong  in  working  out  plans  for 
the  original  organization  of  new  materials. 

5.  In  oral  instruction,  young  teachers  should  cul- 
tivate, next,  the  power  of  clear  and  logical  presenta- 


CLASSROOM   INSTRUCTION  43 

tion,  on  the  basis  of  previous  careful  organization. 
Closely  combined  with  this  there  should  be  marked 
skill  in  graphic  illustration  by  the  use  of  descriptive 
language  or  board  sketches,  maps,  pictures,  and 
other  modes  of  objectification. 

6.  Experience  has  demonstrated  that  for  young 
teachers  it  is  quite  difficult,  in  free  oral  instruction,  to 
hold  to  this  aforesaid  outline  of  leading  points.  Severe 
discipline  and  considerable  experience  are  necessary 
before  this  logical  habit  is  acquired  by  teachers. 

7.  The  second  essential  of  good  oral  work  is  the 
satisfactory  reproduction  by  the  children  of  this  pre- 
sented material.  Without  this  proof  of  attentiveness 
and  mastery  of  the  subject  by  the  pupils,  oral  in- 
struction falls  to  pieces  and  goes  to  waste. 

8.  A  far  more  difficult  problem,  and  one  not  to  be 
undertaken  too  rashly,  is  that  of  developing  a  complex 
topic  by  means  of  questions,  answers,  and  free  dis- 
cussion.    This  is  the  so-called  "development  process." 

9.  In  our  oral  lessons  in  schools,  there  has  been  a 
strong  tendency  toward  development  instruction.  It 
is  a  process  of  evolving  the  new  subject  matter,  by 
means  of  questions  based  upon  previous  knowledge 
and  experience  and  by  means  of  discussions,  in  which 
the  children  are  led  to  infer  many  facts  and  conclu- 
sions. In  such  oral  work,  however,  many  of  the  new 
facts  must  necessarily  be  presented  by  the  teacher. 

10.  Development  work,  as  commonly  understood, 


44        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

is  based  largely  upon  the  proposition  that  we  should 
not  tell  a  child  anything  which*  he  is  able  to  discover 
or  think  out  for  himself.  Young  teachers  seem  to 
be  naturally  disposed  to  adopt  this  development  form 
of  instruction  and  to  hold  back  from  giving  direct 
information  in  development  lessons. 

ii.  Even  a  small  amount  of  reflection  will  convince 
us  that  development  instruction  is  an  extremely  com- 
plicated and  difficult  mode  of  teaching.  It  presup- 
poses an  unusual  mastery  of  the  subject  such  as  only 
experienced  experts  possess,  a  rare  ability  in  asking 
questions,  and  an  equally  rare  ability  to  guide  free 
discussion  along  a  predetermined  logical  line  of 
thought. 

12.  Often  our  young  and  inexperienced  teachers 
are  not  skillful  in  using  a  development  method  of 
instruction.  Even  if  their  material  is  well  organized, 
they  are  easily  drawn  away  upon  side  issues.  They 
have  not  developed  the  judgment  to  discriminate 
between  important  and  unimportant.  They  waste 
much  valuable  time  in  quizzing  children  about  minor 
points,  wrong  statements,  and  suggestions  in  dis- 
cussion that  lead  them  astray.  Development  lessons 
easily  degenerate  into  loose  discussions,  without  reach- 
ing definite  and  tangible  results. 

13.  In  development  work  the  manner  of  question- 
ing should  be  subjected  to  close  limitations.  First, 
it  should  hold  definitely  and  strongly  to  the  main  line 


CLASSROOM   INSTRUCTION  45 

of  thought.  Second,  a  few  central  questions,  striking 
in  upon  the  main  argument,  are  better  than  a  large 
number  of  detailed  questions.  Third,  questions  that 
aim  to  bring  out  a  child's  previous  knowledge,  for 
apperceptive  uses,  must  be  very  clear  and  well-judged. 

14.  In  history,  geography,  and  other  studies  treated 
orally,  it  is  important  to  make  sure  that  the  essential 
facts  are  presented  to  children  before  calling  upon 
them  to  reflect  or  draw  conclusions.  Teachers  often 
make  the  mistake  of  trying  to  develop  by  questions 
facts  which  ought  to  be  furnished  by  the  teacher  or 
from  a  book.  See  to  it  first  that  the  conditions  of 
thought,  the  necessary  facts,  are  present  in  children's 
minds,  as  a  basis  for  reasoning.  They  may  be  drawn 
out  of  a  child's  experience  in  part.  But  they  should 
not  seldom  be  directly  furnished  by  the  instructor. 

15.  Many  teachers  seem  to  have  an  antipathy 
against  giving  children  any  information  by  direct 
statement,  but  they  show  a  strong  preference  for 
questions  as  a  mode  of  prying  secrets  out  of  children. 

16.  The  questioning  habit  in  teachers  runs  into 
serious  faults  that  are  easily  noticed  by  an  observer, 
as  follows:  (a)  a  multiplicity  of  questions,  where  a 
few  well-chosen,  significant  questions  would  be  better ; 
(b)  chasing  down  a  child's  mistakes  with  questions  so 
that  he  will  correct  himself  (often  a  great  waste  of 
time) ;  (c)  questioning  children  on  side  issues  that 
arise   in    discussion   (such  questions  carry  one    far 


46        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

afield  and  accomplish  little) ;  (d)  questioning  a  child 
when  he  is  muddled  to  see  if  he  cannot  extricate  him- 
self (usually  a  vain  hope  and  a  great  waste  of  time) ; 
(e)  vague  and  unpremeditated  questions  which  leave 
the  children  in  doubt  as  to  the  teacher's  meaning. 

17.  As  soon  as  the  important  facts  bearing  on  a 
subtopic  have  been  gained  from  the  child  or  presented 
by  the  teacher  or  obtained  from  the  book,  apt  ques- 
tions, to  bring  out  the  significance  and  grouping  of 
these  facts,  their  wider  import,  or  their  application 
in  the  further  development  of  the  topic,  are  in  place. 

18.  In  presenting  problems  in  history  or  geography 
for  children  to  solve  by  their  own  thinking,  first  state 
in  full  the  introductory  facts,  the  difficulties  of  the 
situation.  Then  raise  a  question  as  to  the  mode  of 
solution. 

19.  Teachers  often  enter  upon  a  series  of  questions 
with  too  little  preliminary  reflection.  To  state  good 
clear  questions  is  a  difficult  art.  To  ask  a  series  of 
pertinent  questions  leading  to  a  logical  development 
of  a  topic  is  an  extremely  difficult  process  of  thinking, 
one  acquired  only  by  severe  discipline  and  training. 

20.  Teachers  should  use  a  development  method  with 
considerable  caution,  and  not  depend  upon  it  at  first 
as  the  main  feature  of  oral  instruction.  With  en- 
larged experience  and  training,  skill  in  asking  develop- 
ment questions  is  gradually  acquired. 

21.  Skillful  development  instruction  is  one  of  the 


CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION  47 

highest  and  most  difficult  arts  in  the  teaching  pro- 
fession. Those  who  would  aspire  to  such  worthy 
achievement  should  be  willing  to  put  themselves 
under  discipline,  first  in  the  serious  thought  work  of 
organization,  and  second  in  the  various  forms  of  skill 
required  in  lively  oral  work. 

■v 

4.  Questioning 

Questioning  is  the  most  important  instrument  used 
by  the  teacher  in  classroom  exercises.  It  has  a  great 
variety  of  uses,  some  of  them  very  delicate  and  dis- 
criminating. Teachers  usually  drop  into  the  ques- 
tioning habit  freely  and  unreservedly  without  much 
concern  as  to  its  difficulties  or  pitfalls,  and  without 
seeming  to  realize  that  good  questioning  is  an  uncom- 
monly difficult  art.  The  style  of  questioning  adopted 
by  a  teacher  betrays  at  once  the  weak  points  or  the 
strong  points  in  his  mental  character. 

We  will  note  first  some  of  the  more  commonly  rec- 
ognized characteristics  of  good  questioning. 

1.  Questions  should  spring  from  a  deliberate  and 
thoughtful  attitude  of  mind,  and  they  should  produce 
in  pupils  a  similar  thoughtful  and  reflective  mood. 
This  applies  to  questions  used  to  test  knowledge, 
power  to  see  relations  and  to  solve  problems. 

2.  Good  questions  by  the  teacher  spring  out  of  a 
well-organized    body  of    knowledge.     Without    per- 


48        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

ceiving  clearly  the  organizing  centers  of  thought  in 
his  subject,  the  teacher  is  at  a  loss  how  to  frame  or 
where  to  apply  his  questions.  Prudent  and  thought- 
ful questions  strike  in  toward  the  main  line  of  thought 
and  touch  the  pivotal  points  in  the  series  of  topics. 
They  are  centripetal  rather  than  centrifugal.  It 
takes  thought  and  practice  to  hit  the  mark  with  a 
question. 

3.  A  good  question  that  strikes  the  center  of  a 
topic  calls  up  a  whole  series  or  group  of  things,  and 
before  this  question  is  answered,  may  require  a  re- 
combination of  facts  and  data.  Make  one  question 
go  as  far  as  possible. 

4.  These  pivotal  questions  will  have  to  be  thought 
out  reflectively  beforehand.  It  is  not  safe  to  depend 
upon  the  inspiration  of  the  moment. 

5.  In  questioning  one  must  learn  to  discriminate 
between  the  important  and  the  trivial,  between  those 
things  which  contain  the  gist  of  the  matter  and  those 
of  small  import. 

6.  Questions  must  be  clear,  explicit,  and  unam- 
biguous. This  requires  care,  simplicity,  and  definite- 
ness  in  language. 

7.  Successive  questions  should  follow  a  logical  line 
of  argument  and  not  scatter  far  into  bypaths. 

Faulty  questioning  assumes  a  variety  of  forms : 
1.  Asking  too  many  questions.     In  the  opinion  of 
some  thoughtful  people,  the  usual  free  and  promiscuous 


CLASSROOM  INSTRUCTION  49 

questions  of  teachers  run  far  in  excess  of  a  proper 
standard.  Teachers  are  said  to  ask  many  times  as 
many  questions  as  are  needed. 

2.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  fault  of  teachers  to  help 
children  too  much  by  numerous  detailed  questions. 
The  pupil,  instead  of  reciting  independently  and  con- 
nectedly upon  some  important  topic,  waits  for  the 
teacher's  questions  and  is  propped  up  and  sup- 
ported at  every  step  by  the  teacher's  suggestive  and 
overhelpful  inquiries. 

3.  Some  of  these  careless  questions  suggest  the  an- 
swer, or  by  the  tone  of  voice  imply  that  the  child's 
previous  answer  is  wrong. 

4.  Questions  which  set  children  to  guessing  are 
sometimes  allowed  to  run  from  one  to  another  in  the 
class,  without  definite  outcome.  Various  opinions 
are  called  for,  and  in  the  end  the  matter  is  left 
unsettled. 

5.  Vague,  indefinite,  and  general  questions  are  all 
too  common.  They  are  so  bungling  and  obscure  that 
no  rational  answer  could  be  given.  Such  questions 
are,  in  fact,  enigmas  or  riddles  upon  which  to  waste 
time. 

6.  In  development  instruction,  questions  are  some- 
times asked  to  bring  out  facts  that  cannot  be  found  in 
the  child's  experience.  It  is  a  great  waste  of  time  to 
fish  after  facts  which  somehow  will  not  come  to  the 
surface. 


50        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

7.  After  failing  to  get  an  answer  to  one  question, 
teachers  do  not  like  to  give  up  in  defeat  and  so  ask 
another  and  another  question,  until  perhaps  a  loop- 
hole of  escape  appears,  or  the  teacher  himself  is  com- 
pelled in  the  end  to  explain  and  give  the  answer. 

8.  A  common  fault  is  that  of  repeating  one's  ques- 
tions, as  well  as  the  answers  of  the  children. 

9.  A  frequent  error  in  stating  questions  is  that  of 
giving  one  question,  then  changing  or  modifying  it 
in  various  ways  until  the  children  can  understand  it. 
This  procedure  suggests  that  the  instructor  has  not 
reflected  upon  his  questions  and  boiled  them  down 
to  what  is  definite  and  essential. 

10.  A  serious  problem  in  dealing  with  questions  and 
answers  is  that  of  handling  skillfully  the  replies  made 
by  the  children.  To  incorporate  the  answers  and  con- 
tributions of  the  children  into  the  forward  thought- 
movement  without  wasting  time  on  trivial  side  issues, 
requires  broadmindedness  and  quick  and  accurate 
judgment. 

1 1 .  In  lively  and  thoughtful  instruction  many  ques- 
tions spring  from  the  children  themselves  that  are 
worthy  of  careful  consideration. 

12.  It  is  an  encouraging  sign  to  see  children  coming 
into  a  class  recitation  prepared  to  ask  important 
questions.  It  proves  that  they  have  been  set  to  think- 
ing either  in  the  previous  lesson  or  during  the  study 
period. 


CLASSROOM   INSTRUCTION  51 

5.  Attention  )( 

1.  The  success  of  all  mental  activity  depends  upon 
the  degree  of  attentiveness  to  the  thing  in  hand. 

2.  The  teacher  can  help  children  in  their  work  by 
providing  the  conditions  favorable  to  strong  attention, 
as  follows :  (a)  a  subject  of  study  that  naturally  com- 
mands the  interest  and  attention  of  children ;  (b)  set- 
ting up  aims  and  problems  that  concentrate  thought 
upon  important  and  difficult  topics ;  (c)  physical  and 
mental  freshness  in  the  children ;  (d)  the  removal 
of  disturbing  influences. 

3.  The  energetic  will  of  the  teacher  may  reenforce 
the  vacillating  will  of  the  children  in  securing  atten- 
tion to  the  lesson. 

4.  In  the  act  of  attention  the  mind  is  focalized 
for  an  instant  upon  one  thing,  and  then  moves  on  to 
the  next  and  the  next,  etc.  A  progressive  movement 
of  thought  is  required  in  order  to  hold  the  attention. 
Otherwise  it  jumps  the  track  and  wanders  off. 

5.  Mental  effort  in  classrooms  goes  properly  by 
spurts,  or  strong  impulses,  with  short  periods  of  re- 
laxation. As  in  boxing,  a  three  minutes'  vigorous 
effort,  followed  by  a  minute  of  rest,  etc.  Primary 
children  cannot  work  with  full  vigor  more  than  five 
or  ten  minutes  at  a  time.  Then  should  follow  a  short 
rest  and  transition  to  something  else. 

6.  German  schools  lay  great  stress  upon  attentive- 


52        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

ness  in  the  classroom,  and  they  provide  long  rest 
periods  between  the  recitation  periods. 

7.  In  oral  recitations,  where  no  textbooks  are  used, 
success  depends  upon  close  attention.  The  habit  of 
inattention,  cultivated  in  the  classroom,  repeats  and 
fixes  itself  in  the  study  periods  at  home  and  school. 
The  classroom  is  the  place  to  train  children  to  right 
habits. 

8.  Laxity  of  attention  in  classrooms  is  a  somewhat 
marked  feature  of  many  of  our  schools. 

9.  One  of  the  chief  difficulties  for  young  teachers 
(and  often  for  older  ones)  is  that  of  securing  and  hold- 
ing class  attention. 

10.  Fresh  air,  gymnastic  exercises  and  recesses  or 
rests  properly  distributed,  are  a  direct  support  to  at- 
tention. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  CRITICISM  OF  INSTRUCTION 

i.  How  to  Judge  and  Criticize  Class  Recitations 

i.  Note  first  the  position  and  grouping  of  the  class 
with  regard  to  teacher,  blackboard,  maps  and  illus- 
trative materials,  and  with  regard  to  light  from  win- 
dows. The  compact  grouping  of  the  pupils  so  as  to 
be  easily  surveyed  and  controlled  by  the  teacher  is 
of  importance. 

2.  Manner,  dress,  and  attitude  of  the  teacher  be- 
fore the  class.  Is  he  confident  or  diffident,  energetic 
or  impassive,  stiff  or  flexible,  agreeable  or  offish,  well 
equipped  or  unprepared,  overcritical  or  overindulgent, 
neat  and  tasteful  in  dress  or  careless. 

3.  Discover  the  plan  of  the  day's  lesson  and  its 
relation  to  the  series  of  lessons  in  the  larger  topic. 
Does  this  lesson  fit  in  closely  to  the  thought-movement 
of  the  entire  subject?  In  the  review  of  previous 
points  and  in  the  assignment  for  the  next  lesson,  do  we 
observe  a  well-organized  plan  ? 

4.  Is  the  teacher  a  full  master  (1)  of  the  subject 
of  study  in  its  facts  and  thought  relations ;  (2)  of  the 

S3 


54        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE   FOR  TEACHERS 

attention  and  interest  of  children ;   (3)  of  the  thought 
processes  by  which  children  appropriate  knowledge? 

5.  Is  the  teacher  skillful  in  the  clear  presentation 
of  difficult  points  and  in  calling  forth  adequate  re- 
productions from  the  class?  Is  the  response  of  the 
class  to  the  teacher's  questions  and  leadership  strong 
and  self-reliant  ? 

6.  Is  he  an  adept  in  questioning  and  in  managing 
discussion?  Can  he  direct  the  children  into  strong 
and  independent  thinking  while  holding  firmly  to 
essential  points  in  the  close  line  of  argument?  All 
discussion  tends  to  run  wild.  Does  the  teacher  hold 
it  to  the  point  without  damage  to  freedom  ? 

7.  Is  the  teacher  incisive  and  definite  in  bringing 
the  main  ideas  into  prominence  so  that  they  are  clearly 
grasped  by  the  pupils  and  expressed  in  fitting  lan- 
guage ?  Have  the  children's  ideas  been  cleared  up  on 
important  points  so  that  these  stand  out  sharply  in 
their  minds  ? 

8.  Is  too  much  attention  bestowed  upon  a  few 
pupils,  either  upon  the  quicker  or  the  slower  ones,  in 
the  class?  Is  the  class  spirit  kept  up  without  losing 
track  of  individuals  ? 

9.  Does  the  master  dominate  the  class  too  much 
with  his  own  opinion  and  authority,  or  does  he  throw 
the  children  more  and  more  upon  their  own  resources 
in  thinking  and  in  expressing  their  thought  ? 

10.  Does  the  teacher  keep  a  just  balance  between 


THE   CRITICISM   OF   INSTRUCTION  55 

accuracy  in  little  things  and  the  emphasis  of  important 
ideas  or  principles?  Can  these  two  things  be  com- 
bined in  one  recitation  ? 

11.  Is  he  versatile  in  simple,  concrete  modes  of  illus- 
trations, whether  by  anecdote,  personal  experience  and 
humorous  example,  or  by  blackboard  sketching,  dia- 
gram, dramatic  action,  figures  of  speech,  and  sim- 
plicity and  clearness  in  language. 

12.  In  its  results  test  the  recitation  upon  the  value 
of  the  knowledge  acquired  and  organized  during  the 
class  period,  the  kind  of  thinking  done,  and  the  spirit 
developed  in  the  class  toward  the  subject  of  study. 

13.  As  a  consequence  of  the  lesson,  will  children 
know  better  how  to  study?  how  to  apply  their  ef- 
forts more  independently  to  the  succeeding  problems 
of  study?  Is  there  inclination  to  push  on  further  in 
the  study  of  the  subject  ? 

14.  Did  the  lesson  have  insufficient  variety  to  keep 
up  a  lively  mental  activity,  or  did  it  tend  toward  mo- 
notony and  consequent  dullness  and  inattention  ? 

15.  What  was  the  special  aim  of  this  lesson,  and  to 
what  extent  was  it  realized  in  the  work  accomplished  ? 

16.  Was  the  teacher  alert  to  make  use  of  the  chil- 
dren's previous  life  experiences  and  knowledge  gained 
in  school  studies?  Was  there  much  connection  be- 
tween this  lesson  and  other  lessons  ? 

17.  Did  the  instructor  take  sufficient  time  and 
pains  in  the  assignment  of  the  succeeding  lesson  ? 


56        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

1 8.  Was  the  teacher  properly  attentive  to  correct 
language  expression  and  full  sentence  construction? 

19.  Did  the  teacher  talk  too  much  or  too  little  ? 

20.  Was  good  use  made  of  the  contributions  brought 
by  the  pupils  to  the  discussion  of  topics  ? 

21.  Were  the  teacher's  questions  well  digested,  clear, 
and  properly  centered  on  the  main  points  ? 

22.  Was  there  waste  of  time  in  discussion,  in  repe- 
titions, in  class  management,  or  in  other  ways  ? 

23.  In  observing  a  lesson,  take  a  few  notes  of  such 
definite  character  as  to  illustrate  the  points  of  criti- 
cism. Give  full  credit  for  the  excellences  shown  in  a 
recitation.     Avoid  all  unkindly  and  harsh  criticism. 

2.  Where  to  Center  Attention 

The  concentration  of  attention  and  effort  upon 
important  points  and  upon  difficulties  that  must 
be  met  is  the  secret  of  success  in  much  of  our  study. 
The  failure  to  strike  these  important  points  hard 
and  to  drill  upon  them  is  accountable  for  much  ill- 
success. 

1.  In  spelling  a  list  of  words  it  is  advisable  to  put 
the  list  on  the  board  and  examine  them  one  by  one  to 
discover  what  the  special  difficulty  is  in  each  case, 
to  focus  attention  upon  the  point  where  a  mistake  is 
likely  to  occur,  as  in  the  word  separate;  the  middle 
syllable   sep-a-rate   is   the   danger   point.     In   their 


THE  CRITICISM  OF  INSTRUCTION  57 

following   study   the   children   will   fall  upon   these 
special  points  with  vigor. 

2.  In  a  reading  lesson,  proper  names,  as  in  the 
poems  of  "  Horatius  "  or  "  Hiawatha,"  need  to  be  ex- 
amined and  clearly  pronounced  and  the  specially 
troublesome  names  given  in  concert  and  singly  in  the 
assignment  of  the  lesson. 

3.  Likewise  in  geographical  studies,  hard  names 
deserve  special  preliminary  attention  and  a  correct 
pronunciation  secured  before  study  and  drill  are  re- 
quired. They  will  then  know  upon  what  to  center 
attention. 

4.  In  the  correction  of  common  faults  in  the  use 
of  English,  a  small  number  of  the  more  common 
errors  in  the  use  of  the  verb  to  be,  of  pronouns,  of  con- 
tractions, of  homonyms,  and  of  irregular  verbs,  should 
be  clearly  shown  by  examples,  the  proper  forms  placed 
conspicuously  on  the  blackboard  and  kept  before  the 
children  until  habits  of  correct  use  are  established. 

5.  In  sketching  maps  of  states,  or  continents  or 
countries,  show  children,  in  the  introduction  to  a  map- 
making  lesson,  how  to  see  the  large  prominent  features 
of  a  map,  its  main  bulk  and  dimensions,  its  shape 
as  a  whole  in  proper  proportions,  and  neglect  the  little 
points,  the  small  crooks  and  details.  Fix  the  atten- 
tion upon  these  essential  features  as  a  clear  sugges- 
tion how  to  study. 

6.  In  arithmetic  teach  children  to  find  the  pivot  of 


58        HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

the  problem,  and  the  grouping  of  facts  around  this 
point.  In  working  out  a  process  like  long  division  or 
the  division  of  fractions,  there  is  one  spot  in  the 
process  where  the  main  difficulty  lies.  Fix  attention 
upon  this,  illustrate  it  and  clear  it  up,  before  assigning 
a  lesson  in  problems  to  apply  this  process.  In  the 
writing  of  decimals,  before  giving  problems,  see  to  it 
that  the  children  image  the  number  before  writing  it. 
Let  them  get  the  habit  of  determining  the  number  of 
places  to  the  right  of  the  decimal  point,  the  number  of 
zeros  required,  and  then  be  prepared  to  write  the 
number  correctly  from  left  to  right  promptly. 

7.  In  assigning  a  lesson  in  spelling  from  a  passage 
in  the  reading  lesson,  teach  the  children  how  to  pick 
out  the  difficult  words,  especially  those  used  commonly 
in  letter  writing  or  composition.  Notice  which  words 
are  phonetically  spelled,  which  are  peculiar  and  ex- 
ceptional. Make  a  list  of  those  deserving  particular 
attention. 

8.  In  an  oral  lesson  in  history  or  science  or  geog- 
raphy, teach  children  how  to  discriminate  between 
minor  facts  and  leading  points,  how  to  make  an  out- 
line of  essential  subtopics,  each  of  which  is  an 
important  center  of  thought.  This  forms  then  the 
basis  of  reproductions  and  of  later  reviews  and  drills. 
The  making  of  good  outlines  is  a  fine  art,  requiring 
a  careful  judgment  of  values  and  an  accent  upon 
essentials. 


THE  CRITICISM  OF  INSTRUCTION  59 

9.  In  the  study  of  literary  selections,  lead  children 
to  hunt  out  the  main  theme,  the  controlling  motive 
in  each  important  act  or  section  of  the  story  and  of  the 
whole  poem  or  story.  The  entire  treatment  will 
hinge  upon  the  wise  selection  of  the  chief  idea  or  mo- 
tive in  a  masterpiece. 

These  few  illustrations  will  serve  to  show  how  great 
an  economy  may  be  secured  and  how  much  more 
efficiency  in  studies  is  possible  if  children  are  taught 
where,  that  is,  upon  what  points,  to  concentrate  their 
attention  as  a  basis  for  thorough  mastery  and  drill. 

The  less  important  facts  and  topics  can  be  passed 
upon  more  quickly  or  dropped  to  one  side. 

3.  Formal  Routine  and  Humdrum 

Humdrum  is  denned  in  the  dictionary  as  dull,  com- 
monplace, tedious,  etc.  There  are  many  school 
exercises  which  seem  to  possess  a  natural  tendency 
to  run  into  formal  routine  and  humdrum.  Even  the 
most  interesting  studies,  in  the  hands  of  a  sleepy 
teacher,  drop  down  to  a  drowsy  monotony.  A  few 
of  the  more  marked  examples  of  humdrum  may  be 
stated  as  follows : 

1.  In  reading  lessons,  where  children  read  con- 
tinuously without  suggestion  or  criticism,  and  without 
apparent  aim.  The  teacher's  one  remark  is,  "Read 
on,  Mary,"  "Read  on,  Peter." 


60        HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

2.  In  primary  reading,  word  drills  are  apt  to  be- 
come dull  and  tiresome.  Indeed,  it  is  difficult  to  hold 
the  attention  of  the  little  folks  upon  them.  The 
teacher  is  put  to  it  to  find  original  devices  and  variety 
of  work  for  such  emergencies. 

3.  The  learning  of  dictionary  definitions  of  words, 
without  insight  to  apply  them  to  the  sentences  in 
hand. 

4.  Memorizing  and  reciting  passages  and  poems 
that  are  not  well  understood. 

5.  Drill  in  the  spelling  of  meaningless  words. 

6.  Grammatical  analysis  and  diagramming  of  sen- 
tences may  take  on  the  character  of  formal  routine. 
In  such  cases,  for  example,  simple  words  like  0,  the, 
and  and  are  repeated  and  explained  a  hundred  times. 
The  teacher  should  drop  these  familiar,  simple  things, 
and  turn  attention  only  to  those  constructions  that 
involve  some  difficulty  of  thought. 

7.  The  memorizing  and  repetition  of  definitions 
and  rules  that  are  not  clearly  understood,  in  grammar 
and  arithmetic.  Such  rules  should  be  derived  directly 
from  abundant  illustrations  which  make  them  intel- 
ligible and  then  applied  to  new  cases. 

8.  The  exact  verbal  analysis  of  problems  and  pro- 
cesses in  arithmetic  may  become  exceedingly  formal, 
tedious,  and  discouraging. 

9.  The  verbal  memorizing  of  textbook  lessons  in 
history  and  geography  without  imaging  the  scenes, 


THE  CRITICISM  OF  INSTRUCTION  61 

or  thinking  out  the  meanings.  Such  thoughtless 
memorizing  betrays  its  emptiness  by  its  monotony 
and  lack  of  expression. 

10.  Reviews  and  drills  upon  fixed  series  of  facts  in 
history  and  geography  without  new  interpretation. 
Such  chronological  tables  in  history  and  formal  series 
of  names  in  geography  often  have  no  underlying 
thought  connection. 

n.  The  rote  singing  of  songs  without  emphasis  of 
thought  or  sentiment,  or  even  without  appreciation 
of  the  musical  quality  of  the  selection. 

12.  Dictations  in  constructive  work  and  blue  print 
directions  in  the  shop  exercises  prove  that  formal  and 
thoughtless  routine  is  as  dangerous  and  depressing 
in  the  manual  arts  as  in  grammar  and  reading. 

13.  Catechisms  in  religious  instruction  easily  drop 
into  this  formal  routine. 

14.  The  history  of  science  teaching  and  of  nature 
study  reveals  a  similar  drift  toward  formalism,  as  in 
the  old  method  of  plant  analysis,  in  the  memorizing 
of  classifications  and  orders  in  animals  or  insects,  and 
in  the  description  of  plants  or  animals  according  to 
a  tabulated  scheme. 

15.  In  studying  literature  from  textbooks,  even  the 
facts,  names  of  books,  and  other  data  of  an  author's 
life,  as  of  Irving  or  Bryant,  can  be  brought  into  a  dull 
routine  as  humdrum  as  anything. 

16.  Even  physical  exercises  and  marching  may  take 


62        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

on  the  lockstep  and  the  dull  movement.  The  out- 
door games  of  children,  when  too  carefully  supervised 
and  controlled,  lose  their  freedom  and  spontaneity, 
becoming  dull  and  uninteresting. 

17.  These  and  other  illustrations  that  might  be 
enumerated  make  it  plain  that  almost  any  kind  of 
school  exercise  may  easily  drop  down  into  routine 
and  humdrum.  The  question  may  be  fairly  asked 
whether  any  kind  of  school  work,  if  kept  up  to  a  nor- 
mal, healthy  tone,  should  ever  become  humdrum. 
Humdrum  implies  sleepiness,  and  is  the  vanishing 
point  of  thought  and  spirit. 

4.   How  Time  is  Wasted 

Economy  in  the  use  of  time  is  one  of  the  first  essen- 
tials of  good  school  work.  In  contrast  to  this  primary 
need  of  economy  and  efficiency,  our  school  exercises 
show,  in  several  ways,  a  serious  loss  of  time.  What 
is  still  more  serious,  the  habits  of  wasting  time  formed 
in  the  schools  are  perpetuated  in  the  various  callings 
of  later  life. 

The  channels  through  which  time  runs  to  waste  in 
the  schools  may  be  noted  as  follows : 

1.  In  not  devising  and  executing,  in  each  subject 
of  study,  a  well-defined  plan  of  work.  Definite  goals 
must  be  clearly  fixed  in  mind,  and  the  work  pressed 
forward  steadily  toward  their  accomplishment.     This 


THE  CRITICISM   OF   INSTRUCTION  63 

requires  systematic  planning  and  skill  in  execution, 
also  the  selection  of  definite  units  of  study  in  proper 
order. 

2.  By  not  planning  and  executing  promptly  room 
and  class  movements.  For  lack  of  forethought  in 
giving  directions,  children  become  confused  in  taking 
their  places  at  the  board,  in  passing  and  collecting 
materials,  etc. 

3.  By  not  providing  the  necessary  physical  condi- 
tions for  vigorous  mental  effort.  Time  is  wasted  in 
trying  to  teach  children  in  a  hot,  poorly  ventilated 
room,  or  when  they  are  tired,  sleepy,  or  nervously 
unstrung. 

4.  In  lecturing  children  too  much  about  good 
order,  behavior,  and  delinquencies,  while  forgetting 
to  execute  promptly  and  steadily  requirements  al- 
ready made. 

5.  In  scolding  and  reproving  children  publicly 
till  they  become  hardened  and  willful  in  opposition. 

6.  In  not  securing  and  holding  a  strong  and  general 
class  attention.  This  may  be  done  by  planning  the 
work  so  as  to  make  it  interesting  and  valuable  in  con- 
tent. 

7.  In  trying  to  teach  the  principles  of  a  new  lesson 
before  recalling  and  bringing  into  service  earlier  knowl- 
edge and  experience  upon  which  these  principles  are 
based. 

8.  In  not  watching  the  whole  class,  but  confining 


64        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

the  attention  to  one  or  two  reciting,  so  that  the 
class  as  a  whole  loses  interest  and  drifts  away.  The 
work  must  then  be  done  again  for  the  sake  of  de- 
linquents. 

9.  In  half-learning  things;  that  is,  running  over 
a  mass  of  knowledge  somewhat  hastily,  so  that  the 
facts  and  ideas  are  not  clearly  fixed,  the  meanings 
and  relations  are  vaguely  understood,  and  thorough 
reviews  and  drills  are  omitted. 

10.  In  following  a  loose  method  of  development 
work,  with  much  free  discussion,  and  a  failure  to  clear 
up  the  main  line  of  thought.  Many  small  matters 
and  side  issues  are  allowed  to  absorb  the  time.  There 
is  lack  of  discrimination  between  important  and  un- 
important. Inferences  are  drawn  upon  a  too  slender 
basis  of  facts. 

11.  In  indefinite  and  poorly  framed  questions  which 
prompt  the  children  to  loose  guessing. 

12.  In  the  teacher's  talking  and  explaining  too 
much.  The  burden  of  effort  should  be  thrown  heavily 
upon  the  pupils,  and  teachers  should  not  monopolize 
the  time  even  with  interesting  lectures,  to  say  nothing 
of  mere  talk. 

13.  In  lifeless  and  humdrum  exercises  that  deaden 
the  spirit  and  ambition  of  the  class. 

14.  In  waiting  too  long  for  the  poorer  members  of 
the  class,  or  in  trying  to  follow  out  some  abortive  line 
of  questioning. 


THE  CRITICISM  OF  INSTRUCTION  65 

15.  In  trying  to  force  an  answer  from  a  child  when 
he  is  manifestly  unable  or  unwilling  to  give  it. 

16.  In  allowing  children  to  criticize  each  other's 
work.     They  waste  too  much  time  on  trivial  errors. 

17.  In  disputing  with  children. 

18.  In  the  hasty,  loose,  and  unpremeditated  assign- 
ment of  lessons.  Thus  questions,  disputes,  and  un- 
reasonable requirements  arise.  Such  faulty  assign- 
ments are  prolific  in  bad  results. 

19.  Time  is  wasted  during  the  study  period,  (1)  be- 
cause of  a  lack  of  a  definite  program  of  work,  (2)  be- 
cause difficulties  are  met  for  which  the  pupils  are  not 
prepared,  (3)  because  of  dawdling  and  inattentive 
habits  cultivated,  (4)  because  children  disturb  one 
another,  sometimes  trying  to  study  together. 

5.    The  Study  Period 

1.  During  the  study  period,  unless  the  children 
are  strongly  supervised,  they  drop  easily  into  careless 
habits  and  poor  work. 

2.  It  is  not  enough  to  keep  children  orderly  and 
busy  during  the  study  period.  A  standard  of  neat 
and  careful  work  should  be  kept  up  and  errors  foreseen 
and  avoided. 

3.  Children  left  to  themselves  often  dawdle  in 
their  work.  They  make  many  careless  blunders,  and 
get  established  in  bad  habits. 


66        HANDBOOK   OF   PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

4.  Great  pains  should  be  taken  to  make  careful 
and  definite  assignments  for  the  study  period.  If 
the  teacher  can  give  attention  to  those  working  during 
the  study  period  and  hinder  mistakes  or  prevent 
careless,  slipshod  work,  he  will  save  much  time. 

5.  The  old  theory  that  children  should  be  left  to 
their  own  resources  during  the  study  period  and 
should  master  their  lessons  independently,  receiving 
little  or  no  help,  is  good  only  in  part.  The  careless 
habits  of  study  and  of  doing  things,  formed  by  children 
when  left  to  themselves,  interfere  seriously  with 
efficiency. 

6.  It  is  doubtful  if  children  under  any  circum- 
stances should  be  allowed  the  freedom  to  be  careless 
and  heedless  in  their  work. 

7.  As  far  as  possible,  forewarn  children  and  prevent 
them  from  making  mistakes.  Every  mistake  and 
careless  performance  is  the  beginning  of  a  bad  habit 
or  the  strengthening  of  an  old  fault. 

8.  Dictation  exercises  in  language  lead  to  many 
mistakes  which  should  be  foreseen  and  avoided. 
Call  attention  beforehand  to  probable  mistakes  in 
use  of  capitals,  abbreviations,  spelling,  and  sentence 
form. 

9.  The  teacher  must  be  persistent  in  maintaining 
good  standards  during  the  study  period  as  well  as  in 
the  recitation. 

10.  A  little  time  spent  in  examining  and  correcting 


THE  CRITICISM  OF  INSTRUCTION  67 

papers  executed  during  the  study  period  will  help 
to  keep  up  these  standards. 

11.  There  is  much  danger  of  helping  some  children 
too  much  during  the  study  period,  and  of  neglecting 
others.  Some  children  lean  very  heavily  upon  the 
teacher  for  help.     Others  are  too  independent. 

12.  Even  with  two  classes  in  the  room,  and  with 
one  reciting  at  a  time,  much  can  be  done  by  thought- 
ful foresight  and  by  inspecting  results  to  keep  up  good 
standards  of  careful  work. 


CHAPTER  VI 

GENERAL  PROBLEMS  AND   PRINCIPLES 

i.  Problems  not  Easily  Solved 

The  following  statements  suggest  problems  of  un- 
usual practical  importance  which  are  not  easily 
solved,  but  require  the  constant  attentive  considera- 
tion of  teachers. 

i.  Spencer's  idea  of  natural  punishments,  i.e. 
how  to  adjust  penalties  to  the  misdemeanors  of  chil- 
dren, so  as  to  give  full  play  to  the  natural  results 
which  follow  the  deed;  illustrated  by  the  old  story 
of  the  boy  who  cried  "wolf." 

2.  To  encourage  initiative  in  children,  that  is, 
leadership  in  projecting  plans,  in  devising  problems, 
and  in  inventing  ways  of  meeting  difficulties.  Robin- 
son Crusoe  illustrates  initiative.  The  schoolroom, 
because  of  its  formal  requirements,  is  slow  to  prompt 
to  initiative. 

3.  How  to  deal  with  children  who  are  weak  in 
power  of  attention,  who  lack  steadiness  and  concen- 
tration of  thought,  whose  minds  flit  about  incessantly 
from  topic  to  topic. 

68 


GENERAL    PROBLEMS    AND    PRINCIPLES  69 

4.  Can  we  plan  the  work  in  such  a  way  as  to  get 
good  English  in  all  studies,  or  at  least  a  constant  at- 
tention to  correct  and  appropriate  language  in  every 
lesson  so  that  children  will  steadily  improve  in  lan- 
guage power  ? 

5.  Are  we  able  to  deal  with  children  during  the 
study  period  so  that  they  will  learn  how  to  study, 
how  to  use  books,  how  to  master  lessons  and  think 
for  themselves  ?  Some  recitations  are  best  employed 
in  teaching  children  how  to  use  their  books.  Three 
effective  ways  of  influencing  a  child's  study :  (a)  by 
careful  and  suggestive  assignments,  (b)  by  more  or 
less  supervision  of  the  study  period,  (c)  by  tests, 
criticisms,  and  discussions  during  the  recitation. 

6.  How  shall  we  keep  up  a  strong  connection  and 
continuity  of  thought  in  studies  from  grade  to  grade  ? 
This  would  lay  emphasis  upon  underlying  unities  and 
sequences  in  studies  and  courses.  In  history,  for 
example,  a  deeper  study  of  causes  and  effects,  and 
more  continuous  treatment  by  big  topics. 

7.  Is  there  a  way  of  making  the  study  of  grammar 
of  practical  use,  with  real  motives  for  the  children 
and  with  direct  influence  in  correcting  and  improving 
children's  common  use  of  English?  E.g.  the  study 
of  irregular  verbs,  their  parts  and  conjugations,  should 
aid  in  avoiding  common  mistakes.  A  more  constant 
and  rigorous  application  of  grammatical  principles  to 
all  studies  should  help  in  this. 


7<D        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

8.  Are  we  able  to  determine  the  predominant  in- 
terests and  impulses  of  children,  their  characteristic 
feelings  and  mental  attitudes,  during  their  succeeding 
periods  of  growth,  and  can  we  apply  this  knowledge 
to  a  better  selection  of  materials  for  a  suitable  course 
of  study  ? 

9.  What  are  the  ways  and  means  for  developing 
a  liberal,  many-sided,  social  disposition,  first  in  teach- 
ers, second  in  children  ?  The  school  is  a  cooperative 
group  and  may  cultivate  at  all  times  the  social  spirit 
and  the  social  virtues. 

10.  How  to  discriminate  wisely  in  dealing  with 
children  and  with  subject  matter  so  as  to  ask  suit- 
able and  pertinent  questions  in  development  instruc- 
tion. 

11.  How  to  organize  the  knowledge  materials  of 
any  important  complex  topic  into  a  closeknit,  logical 
sequence  of  main  points,  to  give  an  adequate  treat- 
ment of  each  point,  and  to  complete  the  thought 
movement  so  as  to  bring  out  a  well  rounded  whole, 
or  unit  of  instruction. 

12.  How  to  deal  with  children's  physical  defects  and 
by  overcoming  them  improve  their  chances  for  mental 
progress.  Teachers  should  acquire  some  skill  in 
detecting  physical  defects  of  eyes,  ears,  throat,  skin, 
etc. 

13.  The  difficulty  of  getting  an  adequate  supervision 
of   children's   games,  outdoor  sports,  exercises,  etc. 


GENERAL   PROBLEMS   AND   PRINCIPLES  71 

In  the  end  some  sort  of  special  provision  should  be 
made  for  supervising  playgrounds. 

14.  The  broad  general  difficulty  of  getting  a  close 
connection  between  our  fundamental  theories  and 
practice. 

2.  General  Principles  to  be  Respected  and  Worked  into 

Practice 

1.  All  studies  and  all  management  ought  to  con- 
tribute to  the  important  aim  of  moral  improvement. 
Honest  and  serious  effort,  developing  into  habit,  be- 
long to  all  school  work. 

2.  The  conditions  for  physical  health  and  vigor 
must  first  be  provided  for  by  thoughtful  consideration. 

3.  Adjustment,  in  the  broad  sense  of  fitting  into 
life  conditions,  social,  industrial,  and  physical,  is  a 
universal  requirement. 

4.  Respect  for  and  cultivation  of  individuality 
has  likewise  the  widest  scope  and  calls  for  broadmind- 
edness  and  many-sided  appreciation  of  individual 
traits. 

5.  Self-activity  and  initiative,  the  development 
of  originality  and  resourcefulness  in  pupils,  is  one  of 
the  important  and  difficult  achievements.  It  is  one 
of  those  superior  qualities  that  the  schoolmaster  with 
his  dominating  and  controlling  influence  is  inclined 
to  overlook,  if  not  actually  to  discourage. 


72        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

6.  A  many-sided  interest  in  knowledge,  giving 
motive  to  a  child's  study,  is  an  essential  element  in 
all  wholesome  and  hearty  instruction.  It  should  be 
combined  with  the  problem-solving  idea  which  sets 
up  difficulties  to  be  mastered,  and  calls  for  strenuous 
effort.  The  combination  of  interest  with  strenuous 
effort  gives  completeness  to  mental  action. 

7.  The  inductive-deductive  thought  movement  is 
basal  for  the  intellectual  processes  that  give  mastery 
to  knowledge.  The  general  thought  movement  from 
the  individual  to  the  abstract,  and  back  again  to  the 
individual  or  concrete,  is  of  primary  importance  in 
elementary  instruction. 

8.  Apperception,  i.e.  the  constant  development  of 
knowledge  on  the  basis  of  one's  previous  experience 
and  acquisitions,  is  one  of  the  surest  tests  of  right 
methods  in  teaching.  To  connect  up  a  child's  new 
acquisitions  with  his  past  experience  keeps  a  teacher 
very  alert. 

9.  The  principle  of  habit  formation,  the  laying 
down  of  right  habits,  and  the  avoidance  of  wrong 
ones,  is  the  means  for  clinching  educational  values. 
To  be  of  much  practical  value,  all  knowledge  must 
reach  the  stage  of  habit. 

10.  Mental  discipline  is  habit  carried  one  step  far- 
ther and  reaches  over  into  allied  fields  of  effort,  and, 
perhaps  in  some  measure,  into  all  fields  of  thought. 

n.  Continuity  in  thought  processes  in  studies  re- 


GENERAL  PROBLEMS   AND   PRINCIPLES  73 

quires  the  teacher  to  look  beneath  the  surface  to  dis- 
cover those  underlying  ideas  and  connecting  links 
which  bind  together  the  different  and  often  widely 
separated  topics  of  a  study,  as  in  arithmetic,  history, 
etc.  In  order  to  work  out  these  fundamental  connec- 
tions, the  teacher  should  read  in  between  the  lines  of 
the  textbook.  At  this  point  thoughtfulness  and  the 
reflective  habit  ripen  knowledge  into  its  best  fruitage. 

3.    Course  of  Study. 

1.  Our  present  elementary  course  of  study  has 
been  made  more  complex  by  the  addition  of  several 
new  studies,  and  by  enriching  some  of  the  older  studies. 
As  it  now  stands  it  needs  simplification  and  closer 
organization. 

2.  Those  parts  of  the  old  course  of  study  that  are 
no  longer  serviceable  for  our  modern  life  can  be 
dropped  out.  Some  of  the  new  studies  also  require 
sifting,  reserving  only  the  really  essential  parts. 

3.  In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  fluctuation  in 
values  among  studies  and  a  shifting  of  standards  of 
value  so  that  courses  of  study  have  been  very  unset- 
tled. Great  changes  have  been  made,  and  others  are 
in  progress. 

4.  Teachers  are  called  upon  to  exercise  their  best 
wisdom  and  to  take  broad  views  of  the  whole  field  of 
studies  to  determine  (a)  what  studies  are  relatively 


74        HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

more  important,  such  as  reading  and  arithmetic,  what 
of  secondary  moment,  as  writing  and  spelling ;  (b)  what 
are  the  leading  or  central  topics  in  each  of  these  im- 
portant studies ;  (c)  how  to  organize  into  a  close  series 
the  large  topics  in  each  study ;  (d)  how  to  correlate 
the  studies  themselves  with  one  another  and  make 
them  stronger  by  mutual  helpfulness ;  (e)  a  method  for 
the  thorough  treatment  and  mastery  of  these  large 
topics. 

5.  The  lack  of  continuity  of  thought  in  passing 
from  grade  to  grade  is  emphasized  by  the  fact  that 
each  teacher  is  responsible  for  but  a  single  grade,  and 
is  disposed  to  look  not  far  beyond  it.  The  steady 
growth  of  knowledge  and  the  close  dependence  of 
each  year's  work  upon  preceding  years  require 
teachers  to  broaden  their  view. 

6.  The  reconstruction  of  the  course  of  study  along 
the  lines  required  by  modern  life  calls  for  a  thoughtful 
and  reflective  survey  of  the  whole  field  of  knowledge 
with  such  a  selection  and  organization  of  its  materials 
as  will  contribute  to  the  fundamental  aim  of  education. 

7.  This  chief  aim  itself  is  only  gradually  coming 
clearly  into  view.  It  involves  at  least  the  best  culti- 
vation and  training  of  the  individual  in  his  resources 
and  his  adjustment  to  the  social  and  industrial  world 
of  his  surroundings. 

8.  The  surprising  richness  of  the  various  special 
branches  of  knowledge,  as  history,  science,  literature, 


GENERAL  PROBLEMS   AND   PRINCIPLES  75 

etc.,  raises  the  important  question  of  selection.  We 
need  a  simple  course  of  study  and  one,  at  the  same 
time,  very  rich  in  content. 

9.  While  it  is  necessary  to  project  a  course  of  study, 
definitely  determined  as  to  its  main  topics  and  their 
serial  arrangement,  much  freedom  should  be  left  to 
the  teacher  in  the  details  of  treatment  and  method. 

10.  A  full  course  of  study  contains,  of  necessity, 
a  great  variety  of  studies,  widely  different  from  each 
other  (as  arithmetic  and  music,  or  science  and  litera- 
ture) ;  in  fact,  almost  contradictory  in  character,  at 
times.  All  these  studies  are  necessary,  and  they 
show  the  need  for  breadth  and  liberality  in  teachers. 
No  teacher  in  the  common  school  should  narrow  him- 
self down  to  the  routine  of  one  or  two  branches  of 
study.  Every  teacher  should  acquaint  himself  fully 
with  the  course  of  study  as  a  whole. 

4.  Textbooks  and  Apparatus 

1.  The  textbooks,  reference  books,  libraries,  and 
apparatus  that  go  with  a  course  of  study  are  entirely 
essential  to  its  efficiency. 

2.  A  textbook  is  usually  some  experienced  teacher's 
plan  for  handling  a  subject,  and,  to  be  used  at  all, 
needs  first  to  be  thoroughly  understood  as  to  its 
underlying  purpose  and  method.  It  requires  to 
be  studied  as  a  whole,  and  in  detail. 


76        HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

3.  Textbooks  are  necessary  condensations  of  great, 
rich  subjects.  They  are  outlines  and  guidebooks. 
The  rich  stuff  that  lies  back  of  them  in  other  larger 
books,  and  in  life,  should  somehow  be  brought  into 
relation  to  the  text. 

4.  Teachers  should  be  steadily  enriching  their  own 
minds  with  the  resources  of  knowledge  found  in  the 
big,  fruitful  books  and  more  elaborate  treatises  found 
in  libraries,  or  with  books  of  travel,  of  biography,  of 
practical  and  applied  science. 

5.  Teachers  should  read  interesting  books  of  strong 
writers  who  stir  thought  and  emotion,  as  Kingsley, 
Scott,  Irving,  Macaulay,  Eliot,  Bryant,  Stevenson, 
Kipling,  Browning,  Shakespeare,  Homer,  Huxley, 
John  Fiske,  Carlyle,  Ruskin,  etc. 

6.  Teachers  should  keep  in  touch  with  modern  life 
through  newspapers,  magazines,  and  journals  of 
geography,  science,  and  economics.  All  studies  should 
culminate  in  a  better  understanding  and  appreciation 
for  what  is  going  on  in  the  world  to-day. 

7.  A  constant  training  in  the  use  of  dictionaries, 
encyclopedias,  maps,  and  reference  books  is  a  very 
important  part  of  every  child's  education  to  accuracy 
and  to  self-reliant  modes  of  serving  himself  in  acquir- 
ing knowledge. 


CHAPTER  VII 

SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL   STUDIES 

i.   Language  Regulatives 

GENERAL 

i.  Language  exercises,  as  far  as  possible,  should 
have  a  basis  in  stimulating  thought  material.  Some 
sort  of  vital  experience  should  give  a  real  interest,  if 
not  a  compelling  motive,  for  language  expression.  A 
rabbit  hunt  or  a  vacation  f  rolic,  or  Kit  Carson  pursued 
by  the  bears,  or  a  poem  may  furnish  this. 

Lively  prose  selections,  such  as  short  stories  of  ad- 
venture, travel,  discovery,  personal  history,  dialogue, 
and  humorous  passages  can  set  the  mind  in  action  and 
keep  up  the  thought  movement. 

2.  Language  efficiency  illustrates  the  demand  for 
continuity  of  effort  throughout  the  grades.  The 
standards  and  requirements  of  the  earlier  grades 
should  be  kept  in  mind.  There  can  be  no  neglect 
of  previous  lessons,  no  dropping  down  of  the  standard 
to  carelessness  or  oversight  in  language  expression. 

3.  The  standard  of  excellence  in  language  should 
be  high  enough  to  produce  a  conscious  effort  at  correct 

77 


78        HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

and  forcible  expression,  but  not  so  strenuous  as  to 
interfere  seriously  with  a  child's  thinking.  Constant 
alertness  in  the  kindly  correction  of  mistakes  is  more 
effective  than  a  perfect  standard  of  excellence  vigor- 
ously enforced. 

4.  Let  the  teacher  be  careful  in  speech,  clear  and 
accurate  in  pronunciation,  choice  in  the  use  of  words, 
and  well-balanced  in  sentence  construction.  Such 
an  example  operates  visibly  in  shaping  children's 
habits  of  speech. 

5.  Improvements  in  speech  are  matters  of  slow, 
gradual  growth  in  habit  formation. 

6.  The  framework  of  sentence  construction,  in  its 
more  familiar  forms,  should  grow  into  an  unconscious 
habit  of  thought.  This  can  be  brought  about  in  part 
by  the  children  becoming  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
a  few  standard  forms  which  serve  as  patterns.  The 
memorizing  from  time  to  time  of  standard  prose  sen- 
tences will  gradually  induce  a  habit  of  similar  sentence 
construction.  Such  passages  should  deserve  mem- 
orizing for  their  thought  value. 

7.  The  memorizing  of  dialogue  selections  and  occa- 
sional dramatization  help  also  to  fix  in  mind  the  more 
common  constructional  forms  used  in  conversation. 

8.  The  memorizing  of  definitions  and  rules  in 
various  studies,  when  once  clearly  understood,  have 
this  additional  value  as  types  of  good  sentence  con- 
struction. 


SUGGESTIONS   BEARING  ON   SCHOOL   STUDIES      79 
PRIMARY   GRADES 

i.  Oral  story-telling  by  teachers  and  frequent 
reproduction  by  children  is  the  school's  best  means  of 
early  fixing  right  habits  of  speech. 

2.  The  early  reading,  nature  study,  and  story- telling 
with  their  simple  conversational  forms  afford  number- 
less opportunities  for  assimilating  into  children's 
speech  a  variety  of  correct  words,  idioms,  and  simple 
sentence  constructions. 

3.  In  all  language,  the  more  closely  we  combine 
distinct  hearing,  clear-cut  pronunciation,  sharp  seeing, 
and  written  reproduction  of  forms  (on  board  or  paper), 
the  firmer  will  be  the  children's  grasp  of  the  language 
elements.  The  four  senses  cooperate  when  acting 
almost  simultaneously. 

4.  By  cultivating  early  a  free  and  unconstrained 
activity  with  crayon,  pencil,  and  pen,  the  habit  of 
writing,  as  a  mode  of  expression,  becomes  almost  as 
easy  and  natural  as  oral  speech  and  can  be  freely 
employed  in  all  the  later  grades.  Imitating  the 
teacher's  large  easy  arm  movements  at  the  board, 
the  children  may  write  words  and  sentences  in  full, 
round  form.  The  early  seat  writing  should  be  big 
and  free.  Board  and  seat  work  should  be  under  the 
close  inspection  of  the  teacher.  Small  cramped 
finger  motions  are  the  bane  of  the  children's  early 
writing. 

5.  In  primary  exercises  the  correct  uses  of  pronouns, 


80        HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE   FOR   TEACHERS 

of  simple  verbs,  adjectives,  and  adverbs  may  be  in- 
culcated by  kindly  suggestion  and  practice. 

6.  For  seat  work  the  copying  of  short  verses  and 
memorized  passages  should  be  continued  from  first 
into  second  and  third  grade. 

7.  Short  dictation  exercises  and  copying  of  memor- 
ized passages  afford  excellent  drill. 

INTERMEDIATE    GRADES 

i.  The  oral  speech  of  children  in  reproducing 
or  reciting  lessons  should  be  an  object  of  close  obser- 
vation by  teachers :  first  of  all,  to  find  out  what  power 
the  children  have  in  sentence  construction;  and, 
second,  to  note  common  errors  that  need  correction. 

2.  This  closer,  keener  study  of  a  child's  speech  will 
detect  his  faults  in  thinking  as  well  as  his  grammatical 
errors.  This  knowledge  then  becomes  the  basis  for  the 
campaign  for  better  English  that  is  to  follow. 

3.  In  correcting  and  improving  a  child's  oral 
speech  in  the  recitation,  the  teacher  is  dealing  with 
one  of  the  most  fundamental  and  difficult  problems 
of  instruction.  The  question  is,  how  shall  we  criticize 
these  language  faults  and  lead  him  into  correct  usage 
without  interfering  with  his  thought  processes  ? 

In  this   connection   three   modes   are   suggested: 
a.  Many  verbal  errors  can  be  quietly  and  inci- 
dentally   corrected    by    kindly    suggestion    without 
serious  interruption. 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      8l 

b.  Other  corrections  can  be  made  at  the  close  of  a 
child's  talk,  and  more  emphasis  given  to  the  errors 
and  their  revision. 

c.  Some  of  these  more  common  mistakes  may  be 
definitely  taken  up  in  the  language  lesson,  and  drills 
upon  correct  usage  be  given. 

4.  The  definite  and  systematic  correction  and  im- 
provement of  oral  speech  is  a  pressing  duty  in  every 
recitation  of  every  study.  Without  it  slovenliness  in 
thought  as  well  as  in  words  is  sure  to  follow.  Clear- 
ness and  distinctness  in  utterance  are  also  involved. 

5.  In  each  grade  the  teacher  is  responsible  for 
maintaining  the  standards  set  up  in  the  earlier  grades, 
first  in  respect  of  the  larger  language  aims  which 
stretch  through  the  whole  school  course,  second  with 
respect  to  the  special  forms  of  error  which  have  been 
drilled  upon  in  the  preceding  grades.  This  is  what  we 
mean  by  the  continuity  of  effort,  uninterrupted  by 
change  of  teachers  from  year  to  year. 

6.  The  framework  of  speech,  that  is,  the  important 
forms  of  sentence  construction,  are  forcibly  inculcated 
in  such  thought  studies  as  history,  literature,  science, 
geography,  etc.  If  correct  language  has  been  neg- 
lected in  these  studies,  the  language  teacher  has  a 
garden  to  cultivate  already  overgrown  with  weeds. 

7.  First  of  all,  therefore,  we  must  throw  the  em- 
phasis back  upon  oral  speech  and  the  oral  recitation 
as  the  root  out  of  which  language  springs.     In  order 


82        HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE   FOR  TEACHERS 

to  avoid  dealing  with  bad  habits,  we  must  get  correct 
habits  established  in  oral  speech  as  early  as  possible. 

8.  In  written  exercises  children  may  often  give 
an  oral  statement  of  topics  with  care  as  to  correct 
language,  before  writing. 

9.  Distribute  according  to  some  definite  plan  the 
paper  and  pencils,  or  pens  and  ink.  Often  much  time 
is  wasted  with  these  details. 

10.  Before  writing  give  a  few  plain  directions  as  to 
special  points.  Remind  the  children  of  two  or  more 
common  errors  in  recent  lessons.  Difficult  names  or 
other  new  words  may  require  a  blackboard  drill. 

1 1 .  During  their  writing  let  the  teacher  pass  quietly 
among  them,  noting  errors  and  giving  advice.  Care- 
lessness in  their  written  work  will  only  strengthen 
bad  habits. 

12.  In  written  board  work  similar  watchfulness  is 
necessary.  Let  children  use  erasers  sparingly,  or  only 
by  permission.  Let  them  respond  quickly  to  class 
orders  and  movements. 

13.  In  examining  board  work  children  may  be  en- 
couraged to  acuteness  in  detecting  their  own  and 
others'  errors ;  but  trivial  criticism  should  be  checked. 

14.  The  language  books  are  of  much  service  for  seat 
work. 

15.  Use  the  blackboard  for  showing  children  how 
to  break  up  the  line  of  thought  into  simple  sentences, 
paragraphs,  etc. 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      83 

16.  A  few  at  least  of  the  papers  handed  in  (if  not 
all)  should  be  carefully  corrected  and  then  discussed 
in  the  class.  Children  are  disposed  to  slight  the  cor- 
rections and  to  repeat  their  mistakes.  Steady  pres- 
sure is  necessary  in  order  to  secure  correct  usage. 

17.  The  outline  of  a  previous  lesson  in  history, 
geography,  or  nature  study  may  frequently  serve  as 
a  basis  for  composition.  Such  outlines  should  be  clear 
and  logical  as  to  main  points. 

18.  Have  a  special  aim  for  children  in  each  lesson, 
as  a  rule  in  punctuation,  or  capitalization,  or  a  correct 
form  in  letter  writing. 

19.  Success  depends  upon  the  mastery  and  steady 
application  of  a  very  few  requirements,  and  of  persist- 
ently reviewing  and  keeping  in  mind  these  few  essen- 
tial things. 

20.  In  correcting  common  faults  in  grammar,  keep 
a  few  standard  forms  on  the  blackboard  in  a  con- 
spicuous place  for  constant  reference  until  correct 
habit  is  secured. 

GRAMMAR    GRADES 

i.  The  chief  aim  of  language  work  in  grammar 
grades  is  the  power  and  habit  of  constructing  good  sen- 
tences and  also  of  combining  them  into  continuous  dis- 
course. To  gain  this  result,  children  should  become 
thoroughly  familiar  with  standard  sentence  construc- 
tions in  a  variety  of  forms.     This  may  be  done : 


84        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR   TEACHERS 

a.  By  memorizing  simple  prose  passages  from  good 
sources.  The  same  passages  may  be  later  used  for 
grammatical  analysis  in  its  various  phases. 

b.  By  keeping  up  a  high  standard  of  connected  oral 
speech  in  reciting  lessons,  especially  in  grammar, 
history,  geography,  and  science. 

c.  By  strong  and  vigorous  thought  analysis  in 
reading  lessons,  and  by  grouping  of  words  into  phrases 
and  clauses  according  to  sense. 

d.  By  drill  and  criticism  of  sentence  construction 
in  composition.  Use  the  blackboard  to  exhibit  the 
superior  forms  of  sentence  structure. 

e.  By  careful  grammatical  analysis  of  sentence  con- 
struction, together  with  study  of  thought  relations  in 
the  sentence. 

/.  By  classroom  discussion  of  sentences  and  their 
construction,  of  idioms  and  peculiar  forms  and  ex- 
pressions in  English. 

g.  By  unconscious  assimilation  in  reading. 

h.  By  constant  thoughtfulness  about  correct  lan- 
guage in  all  lessons. 

2.  The  series  of  drills  to  avoid  common  errors  of 
speech  is  reviewed  and  continued  through  the  gram- 
mar grades.  Grammar  often  explains  the  reason  for 
correct  usage,  and  makes  it  rational.  This  series  of 
common  errors  is  outlined  in  the  language  books. 

3.  Constant  alertness  in  observing  and  criticizing 
mistakes,  combined  with  encouragement  to  thought- 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      85 

fulness  and  effort  in  using  good  English,  requires 
unusual  skill  and  persistence  in  teaching. 

4.  From  the  fifth  grade  on,  the  use  of  the  dic- 
tionary should  become  familiar,  and  grow  into  habit. 
Also  of  cyclopedias  and  reference  books.  Independ- 
ence and  freedom  in  the  use  of  such  books  are  im- 
portant. 

5.  The  common  rules  for  spelling,  punctuation, 
capitalization  and  paragraphing  may  be  worked  out 
(inductively)  and  applied.  The  results  in  the  form 
of  rules  and  illustrations  should  be  written  out  in  neat, 
permanent  book  form  by  the  children. 

6.  Composition,  in  its  nature,  calls  for  freedom, 
originality,  and  invention.  The  teacher  will  use  his 
ingenuity  in  devising  topics  and  calling  out  lively 
experiences  that  open  a  way  for  the  spontaneous  ex- 
pressiveness of  children.  This  may  be  accomplished 
by  discovering  and  using : 

a.  Topics  children  are  interested  in  individually,  as 
in  making  a  canoe,  or  constructing  a  tree  house,  or  a 
trip  among  the  northern  lakes,  or  an  experiment  in 
cooking. 

b.  Interesting  episodes  in  history,  travel,  biography, 
adventure. 

c.  Composition  of  poems  for  class  celebrations,  etc. 

d.  Humorous  incidents  and  funny  stories. 

e.  Reviews  of  books  read,  or  plays  heard,  or  pic- 
tures seen,  etc. 


86        HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE   FOR  TEACHERS 

/.  Setting  up  problematic  situations  in  stories  or 
historical  narratives  to  be  worked  out  by  the  inge- 
nuity of  pupils. 

7.  Grammar  pupils,  especially  boys,  are  disposed 
to  throw  off  careless  and  unsightly  papers.  They 
should  be  quietly  and  firmly  held  to  neat  and  well- 
written  paper  work.  The  preservation  and  compar- 
ison of  a  child's  papers  for  the  year  is  often  helpful. 

Grammar 

1.  Grammar  should  be  first  of  all  a  study  of  thought 
relations  within  the  compass  of  the  sentence.  It 
implies  a  vigorous  thought  analysis,  a  training  in 
accurate  thinking  in  standard  English  constructions. 

Composition  carries  this  thinking  process  still 
further  into  the  thought  connections  within  the 
paragraph  and  within  the  larger  units  of  study  such  as 
the  essay,  story,  or  poem. 

2.  The  clearer,  the  more  concrete  and  stimulating 
the  thought  materials  for  grammar  exercises,  the  less 
abstract  and  obscure  they  are,  the  better. 

3.  Grammar  grade  teachers  may  find  opportunity 
to  apply  constantly  in  other  studies  the  principles  of 
thought  interpretation  and  construction  which  are 
being  studied  concurrently  in  the  grammar.  Gram- 
mar studies  should  spring  out  of  the  superior  thought 
matter  of  other  studies  and  again  find  frequent  appli- 
cation in  them. 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      87 

4.  Grammar,  in  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  by 
gathering  up  the  fruitage  of  earlier  language  studies, 
is  the  chief  means  for  reviewing,  rationalizing,  and 
organizing  the  formal  and  conventional  usages  of 
previous  years. 

5.  The  inductive  method  is  well  suited  to  showing 
up  the  principles  of  sentence  construction  and  to  the 
treatment  of  the  parts  of  speech.  In  every  case  an  illu- 
minating series  of  clear  and  simple  examples  can  be 
worked  out  and  compared  and  the  principle  or  rule 
easily  inferred.  Application  in  a  variety  of  forms  may 
follow. 

6.  In  grammar  grades,  the  numerous  classifications, 
exceptions,  and  finer  grammatical  distinctions  merely 
darken  counsel  with  words. 

THINGS   TO   BE   EMPHASIZED  IN   GRAMMAR 

i .  Ability  to  give  promptly  subject,  predicate,  and 
modifiers  in  sentences  of  usual  difficulty. 

2.  Ability  to  tell  the  part  of  speech  of  any  word  in 
ordinary  sentences. 

3.  Correct  use  of  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  adverbs. 

4.  Correct  use  of  common  irregular  verbs. 

5.  Correct  use  of  relational  words. 

IN   COMPOSITION 

1.  Ability  to  reproduce  a  plain  story  in  good  English 
correct  in  form. 


88        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

2.  The  writing  of  a  good  letter  correct  in  form  and 
content. 

3.  The  ability  to  produce  a  well-arranged  com- 
position on  some  suitable  topic  assigned.  This 
implies  some  degree  of  readiness  in  original  composi- 
tion. 

4.  Practical  ability  to  apply  the  rules  of  spelling, 
punctuation,  and  capitalization. 

2.  Geography 

1.  Geography  illustrates  the  plan  of  large  topics, 
having  in  each  case  a  unity  based  upon  an  idea  which 
is  to  be  illustrated,  expanded,  and  applied.  Such  a 
topic  involves  the  elaboration  of  a  type  study  as  an 
organized  body  of  thought. 

2.  The  process  of  working  out  such  a  type  study 
through  its  complete  development  involves  most  of 
the  important  principles  of  good  class  instruction. 
It  runs  through  a  series  of  lessons  revealing  the 
various  phases  of  class  work  such  as  presentation, 
questioning,  discussion,  reproduction,  reviews,  drills, 
assignments,  problems,  outlines,  written  tests,  appli- 
cations. 

3.  The  teacher's  complete  mastery  of  the  entire 
topic  on  the  knowledge  side  involves  both  principles 
and  facts,  and  the  organization  of  these  into  a  rational 
order.   It  requires  a  fullness  and  richness  of  knowledge 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      89 

material  far  beyond  what  is  understood  by  the  usual 
academic  mastery  of  a  subject. 

4.  Well-chosen  object  lessons  and  illustrations 
and  the  ability  to  use  them  with  skill  and  aptness 
stand  among  the  first  of  the  teacher's  requirements. 
A  good  teacher's  thought  and  conversation  become 
tinged  with  the  objective,  realistic  mode  of  inter- 
pretation. His  language  is  marked  with  figures  of 
speech,  images,  and  objective  examples  from  common 
and  daily  experience. 

5.  The  power  to  image  situations  and  complex 
processes  in  the  natural  and  industrial  world  is  put  to 
frequent  service.  The  teacher  must  image  clearly, 
for  example,  the  entire  series  of  processes  by  which 
iron  ore  is  changed  into  finished  steel  products. 
Geography  everywhere  calls  into  play  this  powerful 
faculty  of  imaging.  The  children  must  learn  it  from 
the  teacher. 

6.  The  ready  and  versatile  use  of  the  blackboard 
for  sketches,  diagrams,  and  crude  picturing  in  a  mul- 
titude of  ways  is  a  special  source  of  power  in  the 
teacher.  Without  this  the  geography  teacher  is 
shorn  of  half  his  strength.  Teachers  are  slow  to  real- 
ize how  valuable  this  is. 

7.  One  of  the  chief  instruments  in  the  teacher's 
equipment  is  oral  description.  This  demands  a  very 
plain  and  lucid  style  of  speech,  choice  and  fitting 
words,  homely  figures,  every  idea  definite  and  clear, 


90        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE   FOR  TEACHERS 

and  occasional  touches  of  humor.     Clearness  and  sim- 
plicity of  speech  are  indispensable. 

8.  The  central  idea  or  line  of  thought  is  the  pivot 
upon  which  the  whole  treatment  hinges.  It  is  the 
center  line  of  operations,  the  basis  for  constructing 
and  organizing  knowledge. 

9.  In  working  out  the  whole  topic  a  definite  out- 
line of  essential  points  should  be  placed  on  the  board 
step  by  step,  in  the  progress  of  the  series  of  lessons. 
This  outline  is  the  standing  proof  of  systematic  and 
careful  progress  and  is  a  good  basis  for  comparisons 
and  reviews. 

10.  The  outline  of  many  of  these  topics  follows  a 
close  sequence  based  upon  cause  and  effect.  It  is 
indeed  a  series  of  real  problems,  to  be  worked  out  as 
such,  and  contains  all  the  advantages  of  requiring 
independent  thought  in  solving  problems.  They 
are  also  the  genuine  problems  upon  which  men  have 
been  at  work  in  the  leading  occupations.  These 
problems  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  oral  instruction. 

11.  The  free  discussion  and  development  of  such 
topics,  with  presentation,  questions  and  answers,  is 
difficult  to  manage.  At  first  the  teacher  should  de- 
pend mainly  upon  vivid  oral  narrative  and  descrip- 
tion, with  occasional  questions.  Too  much  free  dis- 
cussion is  apt  to  run  to  waste  in  loose,  incoherent  talk. 
Let  the  teacher  learn  to  hold  to  the  main  line  of  argu- 
ment  and   avoid   digressions.    The   art   of   skillful 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      91 

questioning  and  development  of  topics  is  slowly  mas- 
tered. 

12.  In  good  oral  lessons  half  the  burden  of  work 
must  be  carried  by  the  children.  In  several  ways 
the  children  are  to  be  stimulated  and  held  to  effort, 
(a)  by  reproducing  the  substance  of  what  has  been 
presented  and  discussed;  (b)  by  sketches  and  draw- 
ings showing  their  power  of  expression  in  graphic 
forms;  (c)  by  thoughtful  tracing  of  causes  into  ef- 
fects, and  by  solving  problems;  (d)  by  being  able 
to  give  full  connected  statements  of  important  topics 
in  completing  and  rounding  out  the  whole  subject. 

13.  The  fundamental  ideas  of  geography  run 
through  all  the  grades  from  third  to  eighth.  Teachers 
should  maintain  this  close  connection  of  later  with 
earlier  topics,  and  bring  about  a  continuous  organiza- 
tion from  grade  to  grade. 

14.  The  most  effective  reviews  are  those  secured 
through  the  comparison  of  later  topics  with  similar 
topics  treated  earlier.  For  example,  every  important 
topic  of  Europe  is  open  to  a  fruitful  comparison  with 
similar  topics  earlier  treated  in  America,  as  the 
Danube  with  American  rivers. 

15.  The  second  important  stage  in  the  handling  of 
any  large  topic,  the  expansion  of  the  idea  through 
comparisons  and  applications,  leads  to  the  formation 
of  important  series  of  geographical  facts.  A  specific 
drill  upon  this  series,  with  later  reviews,  becomes 


92        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

necessary  in  order  to  master  and  fix  these  facts  in 
memory.    Use  the  map  with  these  drills. 

1 6.  In  connection  with  every  important  geographi- 
cal topic,  frequent  short  oral  drills,  often  in  concert, 
should  be  carried  out  for  the  purpose  of  fixing  the  more 
significant  facts,  together  with  the  related  facts  in 
other  topics  which  are  drawn  into  view.  In  this  way 
we  cover  a  wider  range  of  facts  and  fill  up  the  open 
spaces  that  may  be  left  between  our  large  topics.  For 
such  drills  maps  are  indispensable. 

17.  Around  each  important  topic  or  type  study 
in  geography  a  teacher  of  that  topic  should  gather  a 
suitable  collection  of  maps,  pictures,  products  (in 
some  cases),  pamphlets,  and  references.  The  subject 
thus  grows  constantly  richer,  and  becomes  more  and 
more  a  center  for  the  organization  of  geographic  mate- 
rial. Each  time,  also,  a  stronger  method  of  treat- 
ment develops. 

18.  Local  home  geography  should  be  strongly  fea- 
tured in  the  first  year  (fourth  grade),  with  excursions 
to  shops  and  fields.  It  is  full  of  the  local  and  con- 
crete. But  in  all  grades  the  return  to  experience  and 
observation  and  travel  in  one's  home  surroundings 
should  be  emphasized.  A  local  museum  of  geographi- 
cal and  historical  material  is  of  great  value  for  class- 
room uses. 

19.  Board  maps,  sand  models,  reliefs,  wall  maps, 
pictures,  geographical  readers  and  magazines,  books 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES     93 

of  travel,  and  product  collections  should  be  at  the 
constant  service  of  teachers. 

20.  The  textbooks  are  used  to  good  advantage  for 
fixing  the  main  facts.  The  interpretation  of  maps, 
the  use  of  statistical  tables  in  the  geographies,  and  the 
proper  use  of  books  of  travel  and  reference  as  a  rein- 
forcement to  lessons  should  be  carefully  taught. 
The  habit  of  using  such  material  should  grow  steadily 
during  the  school  years. 

21.  Geography  is  closely  correlated  with  other  im- 
portant studies  like  history,  science,  and  arithmetic. 
By  constantly  observing  these  correlations  we  get  a 
much  stronger  organization  of  the  varied  materials  of 
knowledge. 

3.  Reading 

PRIMARY   READING 

i.  Learning  to  talk  well  precedes  learning  to  read. 

2.  Story-telling  and  learning  to  reproduce  stories, 
more  or  less  in  imitation  of  the  teacher,  is  the  school's 
earliest  and  best  means  of  cultivating  vigor  of  thought 
and  power  of  language. 

3.  In  story- telling  the  teacher  cultivates  a  vivid 
imagination  combined  with  simplicity  and  clearness 
in  the  choice  of  words,  and  with  accurate  and  pleasing 
tones. 

4.  The  interest  of  children  in  good  stories  strength- 
ens the  attention  and  exposes  their  minds  to  the  full 


94        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

force  of  language  in  the  direct  expression  of  thought. 
No  other  means  can  be  devised  so  effectual  in  molding 
a  child's  thought  and  speech. 

5.  The  process  of  learning  to  read  in  the  first  two 
or  three  years  of  school  is  largely  the  mastery  of  a 
formal  art.  It  consists  in  acquiring  a  new  set  of  sym- 
bols for  receiving  and  expressing  thought. 

6.  A  very  effective  method  of  mastering  the  formal 
difficulties  is  that  through  the  phonetic  interpretation 
of  new  words.  This  presupposes  the  memorizing 
of  the  forms  of  the  letters  with  their  associated  sounds 
or  values,  and  practice  in  their  combination  till  quick- 
ness in  interpreting  new  words  is  gained. 

7.  The  self-activity  of  the  children  in  interpreting 
new  words  is  a  marked  feature  of  this  phonetic  drill 
at  every  step.  Children  should  be  encouraged  and 
required  to  help  themselves  in  getting  new  words  and 
sentences  in  reading  :  (a)  by  using  the  new  powers  of 
letters  as  fast  as  they  are  learned  for  interpreting  new 
words.  This  is  done  by  analyzing  a  new  word  into  its 
sounds  and  then  combining  them  to  get  its  pronuncia- 
tion. Distinct  drill  on  these  elements  and  in  com- 
bining them  is  necessary,  (b)  In  grasping  new  words, 
the  four  senses  are  employed  in  close  conjunction : 
(1)  seeing  the  form,  (2)  hearing  the  word  pronounced, 

(3)  the    pronouncing    of    it    by    the    children,   and 

(4)  writing  it  on  the  board  (by  the  children) .  A  new 
word  is  often  first  pronounced  by  the  teacher,  then 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      95 

analyzed  and  pronounced  by  the  children,  then 
written  by  them  on  the  board,  and  finally  seen.  This 
fourfold  grip  on  new  words  is  effective. 

8.  As  far  as  possible,  the  first  words  analyzed  should 
be  simple  and  phonetic  in  spelling,  as  top,  mat,  fan. 
A  few  of  the  less  phonetic  words  may  require  to  be 
learned  outright,  as  once,  who,  tea,  right,  etc. 

9.  Lively  and  interesting  stories  are  introduced 
very  early  into  reading  exercises.  Children  should 
read  under  the  influence  of  quickening  thought.  The 
previous  oral  treatment  of  stories  will  contribute  much 
to  this  thought  impulse,  and  will  create  the  desire 
for  learning  to  read. 

10.  Lively  questions  by  the  teacher  touching  the 
forward  movement  and  outcome  of  the  story  will 
give  impetus  to  effort.  This  vigorous  guidance  of 
children's  thought  strengthens  interest  and  atten- 
tion. 

n.  Let  children  pass  judgment  on  the  truth  and 
worth  of  what  they  read.  They  should  thoroughly 
enjoy  the  early  stories,  even  in  the  first  grade. 

12.  The  imagination  of  children  should  be  prompted 
to  build  clear  mental  pictures  of  places,  persons,  and 
actions.  Pictures  and  blackboard  sketches  or  dra- 
matic action  are  also  suggestive,  as  expressed  both  by 
the  teacher  and  by  the  children. 

13.  The  close  attention  of  all  the  members  of  the 
class  so  that  each  reads  the  whole  lesson  should  be  a 


96        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

constant  and  conscious  aim  in  the  teacher's  mind. 
A  lively  interest,  well  kept  up,  is  the  best  means  of 
securing  such  attention. 

14.  Children  should  be  early  trained  to  compre- 
hend at  a  glance  several  words  grouped  into  a  phrase 
or  clause.  This  is  developed  (a)  by  quick  writing  of 
such  phrases  on  the  board ;  (b)  by  exposing  phrases 
or  sentences  for  instant  recognition  and  again  cover- 
ing them ;  (c)  by  presenting  momentarily  phrases  or 
short  sentences  on  cardboard ;  (d)  by  observing 
pauses  and  grouping  words  in  reading.  This  habit 
of  grouping  words  to  express  the  larger  thought  rela- 
tions in  sentences  should  begin  in  the  primary  and 
continue  through  the  grades. 

15.  The  phonic  drills,  above  described,  lay  emphasis 
upon  clear  pronunciation  and  distinct  articulation 
both  in  pupils  and  teachers.  The  importance  of  es- 
tablishing this  early  habit  is  such  as  to  carry  weight 
into  all  the  later  studies.  Teachers  should  master 
the  phonic  elements  and  apply  them  with  care  and 
precision. 

16.  Natural  and  appropriate  expression  in  reading 
is  secured,  (a)  by  the  teacher  using  easy  and  natural 
tones  in  speaking ;  (b)  by  the  use  of  interesting  stories 
suited  to  the  children ;  (c)  by  questions  touching  the 
strong  points  in  the  story ;  (d)  by  acting  out  or  dram- 
atizing the  scenes;  (e)  by  occasional  examples  of 
lively  reading  by  the  teacher. 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      97 

17.  Let  the  teacher  keep  an  alert  eye  for  all  that  is 
going  on,  and  not  be  too  attentive  to  the  book. 

18.  Use  the  blackboard  freely  in  working  with  new 
or  difficult  words. 

INTERMEDIATE   AND   GRAMMAR   GRADES 

i.  When  the  children  have  once  learned  how  to 
read  in  the  first  three  grades,  the  reading  work  of  the 
following  years  (fourth  to  eighth  inclusive)  should  be 
a  study  of  literature,  an  enjoyment  of  the  choice 
stories  and  poems  suited  to  their  years,  a  growing  and 
many-sided  appreciation  of  the  work  of  superior 
writers. 

2.  To  teach  well  a  choice  piece  of  literature,  like 
"The  King  of  the  Golden  River,"  or  "Tubal  Cain," 
a  full  preHminary  study  of  the  selection  is  requisite, 
a  study  that  goes  into  it  from  all  sides,  a  study  that 
reaches  out  from  its  central  thought  in  all  directions, 
a  study  that  deals  with  the  author,  and  whatever 
geographical  or  historical  suggestions  or  literary  asso- 
ciations are  appropriate. 

3.  The  leading  motive  of  such  a  piece  becomes  the 
center  around  which  its  thought  is  organized.  All 
questions,  discussions,  and  illustrations  find  their 
meaning  in  relation  to  this  central  thought.  To  give 
a  vivid  interpretation  to  this  idea,  to  throw  it  into  a 
strong  light,  is  the  purpose  of  whatever  illustrations 
are  presented. 


98        HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

4.  The  warmth,  animation,  and  freedom  of  the 
teacher's  mind  in  dealing  with  a  story  attract  and  draw 
the  children  to  a  similar  enjoyment  and  appreciation. 

5.  At  first  children  know  not  how  to  approach 
a  fine  piece  of  literature.  Its  beauties  and  its  sug- 
gestive imagery  have  little  or  no  meaning  to  them. 
The  teacher  is  a  live  interpreter,  a  discoverer  of  secret 
values.  The  children  are  to  learn  how  to  study, 
and  better  still  how  to  perceive  and  enjoy  a  new 
world. 

6.  In  finding  our  way  into  a  new  piece  of  literature, 
the  assignment  of  lessons  becomes  a  fine  art.  There 
are  difficulties  of  thought  and  difficulties  of  language. 
But  difficulties  are  what  children  enjoy  and  appre- 
ciate if  we  are  experts  as  guides.  Difficult  words 
or  names  cause  children  to  stumble.  Hard  passages 
need  to  be  pried  open  a  little. 

7.  In  its  scope  the  assignment  should  be  unmis- 
takably clear  and  definite,  and  posted  in  a  conspicuous 
place  on  the  blackboard  as  a  guide  to  seat  study. 

8.  In  the  recitation,  steady  attention  of  all,  which 
is  so  much  desired,  depends  on  what  is  offered.  A 
rich  and  interesting  lesson,  happily  circumstanced, 
will  rivet  attention.  All  this  depends  on  the  teacher's 
versatility  and  resources  in  handling  the  subject. 

9.  The  teacher's  close  attention  to  the  book  while 
children  are  reading,  prevents  her  from  observing  what 
is  taking  place  in  the  class.     One  can  judge  the  reading 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      99 

of  children  much  better  without  the  book  than  with  it. 
The  teacher's  close  attention  to  the  book  is  a  very 
persistent  error,  and  is  a  kind  of  book  slavery. 

10.  There  is  much  mere  formal  reading  in  classes, 
that  counts  for  little  or  nothing  in  the  way  of  progress. 
There  should  always  be  a  vigorous  spirit  and  effort 
in  pursuit  of  definite  aims.  Why  should  children  ever 
be  allowed  to  read  in  a  humdrum  way,  careless  or 
indifferent  ? 

11.  How  to  question,  and  what  to  do  with  children's 
answers  in  reading,  suggest  serious  problems  for 
teachers.  One  can  waste  much  time  in  trivial  and 
empty  questions.  A  few  questions  are  vital  and 
should  be  followed  up. 

12.  Children  should  be  led  to  interpret  passages  for 
themselves.  But  there  is  often  room  for  wide  variety 
of  interpretation.  Teachers  are  disposed  to  insist 
upon  their  own  interpretation  of  passages,  even  when 
the  child's  idea  is  a  good  one  and  worthy  of  accept- 
ance. Give  children  more  freedom  for  their  own  in- 
terpretation, subject  to  responsible  discussion.  Let 
them  keep  their  bearings  and  interpret  parts  in  rela- 
tion to  the  whole. 

13.  A  quick  imagination  and  a  sense  of  humor  are 
indispensable  for  picturing  scenes  and  for  interpreting 
images  and  figures.  Physical  modes  of  expression 
and  impersonations  of  character  are  means  of  stimu- 
lating the  imaging  power  of  children. 


IOO     HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

14.  The  use  of  dialogue  and  dramatic  action  and 
representation  are  among  the  best  means  of  breaking 
up  the  formality  in  reading,  of  creating  interest  and  of 
producing  freedom  and  self-forgetfulness.  The  large 
amount  of  time  required  for  such  drills  and  rehearsals 
is  amply  paid  for  in  clearness  and  force  of  expression, 
in  the  realism  and  awakening  of  thought,  and  in  in- 
creased language  power.  Children  sometimes  work 
up  their  own  dramatizations. 

15.  Without  too  much  loss  of  time  children  in  these 
grades  should  learn  to  help  themselves  in  meeting 
difficulties :  (1)  by  mastering  verbal  problems ;  (2)  by 
thinking  out  the  meaning  of  obscure  or  involved  pas- 
sages ;  (3)  by  seizing  upon  the  broader  thought  rela- 
tions of  an  entire  selection.  Teachers  should  be  full 
of  devices  for  getting  more  serious  and  sustained 
thinking.  Set  up  definite  problems  and  touch  up  the 
pride  and  feeling  of  children  to  work  out  such  riddles 
for  themselves. 

16.  Encourage  children  in  their  lesson  study  to 
think  out  important  questions  and  problems  for  class 
discussion,  and  to  come  prepared  to  ask  questions  on 
parts  that  are  of  doubtful  meaning. 

17.  This  tendency  to  more  independent  and  mature 
thinking  may  be  cultivated  by  comparing  similar 
ideas  and  figures  of  speech  or  sentiments  in  a  variety 
of  poems  and  stories  from  different  authors. 

18.  Throw   responsibility   upon   the   children   for 


•     V 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      IOI 

giving  to  the  listening  class  the  content  of  a  printed 
page.  Let  each  child  bring  in  a  passage  or  story  to 
read  for  the  instruction  or  entertainment  of  the  class. 

19.  Let  each  child  have  some  well-selected  story 
or  poem  which  he  works  upon  at  home  till  he  can  read 
it  well  before  the  class  for  their  entertainment  and 
instruction.     Decline  hearing  it  till  it  is  well  prepared. 

20.  The  teacher,  after  careful  preparation  and  drill, 
should  occasionally  read  a  passage  in  the  best  way  he 
is  able,  for  the  purpose  of  suggesting  the  higher  ideals 
and  spirit  of  good  reading.  High  standards  are  thus 
set  up. 

21.  Study  the  thought  relations  in  the  sentence, 
by  grouping  words  into  larger  thought  wholes,  with 
suitable  pauses,  so  as  to  throw  them  into  proper 
relation  to  the  sentence  as  a  whole.  Here  grammar, 
analysis,  and  reading  come  together. 

22.  Let  the  teacher  drill  himself  and  the  children 
in  clear-cut  enunciation  of  short  vowels,  final  conso- 
nants, and  correct  vowel  sounds.  Cultivate  also  a 
quick  ear  for  accurate  enunciation  in  the  pupils,  and 
for  pleasing  tones.  Frequent  drills,  singly  and  in 
concert,  are  necessary. 

23.  Use  kindly  ingenuity,  by  indirect  methods,  to 
overcome  nasality,  stuttering,  nervously  rapid  reading, 
monotone,  singsong,  and  slovenly  utterance. 

24.  By  physical  exercises,  work  for  deep  breathing, 
good  physical  position,  and  a  self-reliant  spirit. 


102      HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE   FOR  TEACHERS 

25.  Give  variety  to  each  lesson.  Avoid  monotony 
and  humdrum. 

26.  Each  lesson  should  emphasize  a  particular  aim 
determined  by  the  nature  of  the  selection,  and  by  the 
previous  habits  and  faults  of  the  children. 

27.  A  reading  teacher  from  time  to  time  should 
work  out  a  detailed  and  elaborate  treatment  of  some 
important  story  or  poem  suitable  to  the  grade.  This 
involves  a  rich  and  fruitful  thought  study,  a  collection 
of  pictures,  and  perhaps  maps,  and  other  illustrative 
data.  Also  biographical,  geographical,  and  his- 
torical material  related  to  the  selection;  in  short,  a 
model  of  organization  and  pedagogical  treatment. 

4.   Arithmetic 

PRIMARY    GRADES 

i.  Primary  number  work  begins  to  fix  and  organ- 
ize the  number  facts.  Incidental  to  the  distribution 
and  collection  of  materials,  as  pencils,  paper,  books, 
etc.,  and  in  connection  with  games  and  constructions, 
the  number  facts  are  brought  to  the  front. 

2.  The  first  problem  is  how  to  concrete  arithmetical 
facts  and  processes,  and  second  to  determine  the  sys- 
tematic order  in  the  treatment  of  topics. 

3.  There  should  be  abundant  and  varied  use  of 
measurement,  employing  a  variety  of  concrete  ob- 
jects and  standard  units  as  a  basis  for  measuring. 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      103 

The  children  themselves  should  handle  the  objects  and 
make  the  measurements. 

4.  The  objects  are  sometimes  used  too  long.  As 
soon  as  children  can  image  the  relations  without 
them,  the  objects  should  be  discarded. 

5.  Number  work  in  the  first  and  second  grade 
should  not  be  too  narrowly  limited  (as  it  is  in  the 
Grube  method,  giving  the  number  facts  and  relations 
in  the  first  grade  from  one  to  ten),  but  children  should 
have  a  free  range  among  number  ideas  within  the  limit 
of  their  experience.  The  numbers  12  (or  dozen),  25 
(or  quarter),  and  thirty  (days  in  the  month)  are 
familiar  to  the  children. 

6.  Number  exercises  in  grades  should  attach  them- 
selves to  interesting  objects  or  experiences,  which 
give  a  starting  point,  a  thing  to  be  measured,  such  as 
a  gallon  pail  or  a  peck  measure,  or  the  seven  days  of 
the  week,  or  the  clock  face,  a  thing  to  be  analyzed 
and  interpreted  numerically. 

7.  The  formation  of  a  series  by  analyzing  a  larger 
unit,  either  by  counting  or  by  additions,  gives  a  mental 
movement  which  helps  to  hold  the  attention.  In 
dealing  with  the  seven  days  of  the  week  we  form  the 
series  6+1  =  7,  5  +  2  =  7,  4+3  =  7,  2+5  =  7,  1+6  =  7. 
Drills  on  this  series  in  irregular  order  come  later. 

8.  The  multiplication  table  should  be  taken  up  in 
the  natural  and  easy  order  as  follows:  io's,  5's, 
2's,  4's,  8's,  3's,  6's,  9's,  7's.     A  comparison  of  similar 


104      HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

tables,  as  the  twos  with  the  fours,  and  both  with  the 
eights,  will  set  the  children  to  thinking  and  aid  the 
memory. 

9.  Oral  work  should  greatly  predominate  in  pri- 
mary grades. 

10.  In  written  work  on  the  blackboard  and  at  their 
seats,  children  may  become  quite  familiar  with  sym- 
bols of  number  and  operation. 

1 1 .  In  making  up  oral  problems  the  teacher  should 
keep  within  the  children's  experience  of  local  objects 
and  interests.  The  children  themselves  may  be 
asked  to  make  up  problems. 

INTERMEDIATE   GRADES 

i.  In  these  grades  we  continue  to  learn  arithmet- 
ical facts  and  their  relations,  and  to  master  the  chief 
processes.     This  mastery  of  processes  has  two  steps : 

(1)  their    derivation    out   of   illustrative    examples; 

(2)  repeated  and  varied  application. 

2.  The  inductive-deductive  thought  movement  is 
well  demonstrated  in  working  out  these  processes  with 
children. 

3.  The  introduction  to  a  process  is  best  made  by 
seeing  the  necessity  for  it  by  meeting  with  some  diffi- 
culty or  problem  to  be  solved,  e.g.  How  can  we  add 
3!  and  2f  inches  ?  We  need  a  means  or  process  for 
uniting  such  fractions. 

4.  Illustrate  a  process  first  by  some  simple  problem 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      105 

(often  an  oral  one  is  better).  It  can  best  be  based 
upon  some  familiar  objects  or  blackboard  sketch  with 
dimensions  that  can  be  measured.  Other  simple 
oral  problems  may  follow. 

5.  Open  up  at  once  a  close  connection  between  this 
new  process  and  a  similar  process  previously  studied. 
In  working  out  long  division,  the  steps  previously  used 
in  short  division  will  be  found  illuminating.  It  is  by 
basing  the  new  lesson  upon  things  which  the  children 
already  know,  or  if  they  have  forgotten  must  first  re- 
call and  make  use  of,  that  children  can  do  any  real 
thinking,  can  get  the  habit  of  understanding  new 
things  for  themselves. 

6.  A  simple  written  problem,  worked  out  at  the 
board  by  the  teacher,  before  the  children,  with  oc- 
casional questions,  may  still  further  aid  in  bringing 
out  the  new  process.  Other  written  problems  may 
follow  this. 

7.  Look  back  now  over  these  several  problems 
both  oral  and  written,  and  discover  any  points  of 
resemblance.  Children  should  have  a  chance,  by 
thoughtful  comparison,  to  discover  the  common  points 
that  go  to  make  the  process.  If  children  merely 
accept  the  teacher's  explanations  and  conclusions, 
they  will  work  mechanically. 

8.  To  keep  the  class  attention  in  the  effort  to  fix 
a  process,  so  that  the  wandering  thought  of  even 
careless  children  will  be  held  long  enough  to  catch 
the  chief  points,  requires  a  quick  and  alert  teacher. 


106      HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE   FOR   TEACHERS 

9.  Be  not  in  haste  to  formulate  a  rule.  Rules  of 
operation  were  formerly  given  too  soon.  Oftentimes 
now  they  are  not  given  at  all.  But  some  sort  of 
simple  statement  resulting  from  comparisons  and  in- 
ductions seems  desirable.  In  trying  to  make  sure  of 
processes,  do  not  belabor  and  tease  children  with 
long  verbal  and  written  analyses  of  these  processes. 
These  are  difficult  and  exasperating  and  time-de- 
vouring. 

10.  Oral  problems  (mental  arithmetic),  because  of 
their  simplicity  and  clearness,  have  a  double  use: 
(1)  as  a  means  of  introducing  a  new  process,  (2)  as 
a  means  of  rapid  and  varied  drill  and  application  after 
the  process  has  become  clear. 

11.  When  the  whole  process  has  been  made  plain 
by  simple  oral  and  written  problems,  its  application 
to  a  variety  of  more  difficult  problems  is  made  till 
quickness  and  accuracy  are  developed  both  in  inter- 
preting problems  and  in  figure  processes. 

12.  The  wider  application  of  number  processes  to 
practical  affairs  and  to  other  studies  like  geography, 
applied  science  and  history,  and  to  trades  and  indus- 
tries, has  two  distinct  merits.  First,  it  gives  greater 
facility  in  thinking  and  using  the  processes ;  second, 
it  gives  a  broad  interpretation  of  the  world  and  a 
sharper  insight  into  many  complex  situations.  In 
short,  mathematical  principles  underlie  the  whole 
structure  of  the  physical  world  and  of  society. 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      107 

13.  The  working  out  of  a  group  of  connected  prob- 
lems relating  to  some  large  unit  of  study,  like  the 
grain  production  of  the  United  States  or  the  Panama 
Canal,  or  the  cost  and  losses  of  the  Civil  War,  gives  a 
much-needed  illumination  of  such  topics.  On  the 
numerical  side  they  are  not  specially  difficult. 

14.  Over- technical  and  over-difficult  problems  and 
artificial  arithmetical  puzzles  can  be  omitted  from 
grade  work.  They  belong  to  later  years  or  to  those 
persons  having  special  leisure. 

15.  Careful  and  complete  verbal  forms  of  analysis 
have  dropped  somewhat  into  disuse.  In  any  case 
they  should  be  preceded  by  the  working  out  of  many 
simple,  oral  and  written  problems,  till  the  process  is 
first  clear.  The  main  thing  is  to  see  that  a  child  is 
thinking  clearly,  and  this  can  be  determined  by  ques- 
tions and  brief  answers. 

16.  Correct  mathematical  statements  are  required. 
Careless  and  faulty  and  absurd  language  and  formulas 
are  not  uncommon ;  e.g.  6  ft.  X  6  ft.  =  36  sq.  ft.  Care- 
less, slipshod  statements  are  altogether  too  common. 

17.  In  working  a  class  together  at  the  board,  have 
children  take  their  places  and  obey  orders  promptly. 
Do  not  allow  them  to  write  till  they  know  or  have 
imaged  clearly  the  thing  to  be  written.  Awaken  a 
strong  effort  for  independence,  for  accuracy,  and  for 
quickness.  Require  board  work  to  be  clear,  neat, 
and  legible.     In  explaining  examples  at  the  board, 


108      HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

see  that  the  whole  class  is  in  position  to  follow  the 
work  attentively. 

1 8.  The  continuity  of  thought  processes  in  arith- 
metic deserves  very  special  emphasis.  The  vital 
connection  between  the  earlier,  fundamental,  and  the 
later  derivative  parts  of  arithmetic  suggests  that  both 
teachers  and  pupils  must  be  kept  wide  awake  in  every 
lesson  to  much  that  precedes.  Young  teachers  make 
the  mistake  of  teaching  each  subject  (as  factoring  or 
percentage)  as  an  independent,  self-existent  object  of 
study.  Merely  to  go  through  a  textbook  without 
picking  up  the  loose  strings  and  tying  things  together 
is  to  fail  in  the  most  essential  part.  Failing  to  grasp 
the  few  simple  underlying  facts  and  principles,  the 
whole  subject  lacks  organic  unity  in  the  teacher's 
mind  as  well  as  in  the  pupil's.  In  the  textbook  these 
vital  relations  are  not  seen,  are  not  in  evidence.  The 
teacher  must  read  them  into  the  book  between  the  lines 
and  between  the  subjects.  Dr.  John  W.  Cook  says, 
"If  pupils  are  to  become  expert  in  arithmetical  opera- 
tions, they  must  learn  to  factor  numbers  with  celerity. 
Especially  is  this  the  case  in  Least  Common  Multiple, 
Greatest  Common  Divisor,  Fractions,  Percentage  and 
its  Applications,  and  Proportion." 

19.  In  assigning  a  lesson  upon  a  new  topic,  a  good 
share  of  the  recitation  period  may  well  be  spent  in 
thus  bringing  up  the  reserves  of  knowledge  as  a  prep- 
aration for  attacking  the  new  subject. 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      109 

20.  There  is  a  great  danger,  with  less  experienced 
or  less  thoughtful  teachers,  of  moving  too  rapidly 
through  the  book.  Children  may  do  all  the  problems 
in  a  book  and  still  have  a  very  poor  knowledge  and 
mastery  of  the  subject. 

21.  A  good  textbook  is  necessary  for  both  pupils 
and  teachers.  One  of  the  serious  faults  of  teachers  is 
their  failure  to  give  a  careful  study  to  the  whole  plan 
of  the  author  so  as  to  discover  his  point  of  view  and 
method  of  treatment. 

22.  There  are  certain  necessary  defects  or  limita- 
tions in  textbooks.  They  cannot  furnish  a  sufficient 
number  of  oral  problems,  nor  of  practical  applications. 
They  cannot  supply  any  complete  illustration  of  pro- 
cesses, including  measuring,  diagramming,  paper 
folding,  etc.  Finally,  they  fail  to  show  clearly  that 
fundamental  connection  of  principles  running  through 
all  the  processes. 

23.  The  textbook,  therefore,  is  not  to  be  blindly 
followed  by  the  teacher,  but  certain  parts  more 
emphasized  and  supplemented,  others  reduced  or 
modified  —  and  the  whole  strengthened  in  the  con- 
nection of  its  parts. 

GRAMMAR    GRADES 

i.  The  sources  of  weakness  in  grammar  school 
arithmetic  are  (1)  carelessness  and  inaccuracy  in 
fundamental  operations,  and  (2)  lack  of  self-reliant 
power  to  grapple  with  difficult  problems. 


HO     HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

2.  Inaccuracy  and  carelessness  can  be  corrected 
and  the  mind  toned  up  by  vigorous  and  varied  oral 
work.  Sharp  attention,  accuracy,  and  speed  can  be 
gained. 

"Mental  arithmetic  is  the  life  and  soul  of  rational 
method.  It  is  firmly  held  that,  compared  with  written 
arithmetic  alone,  mental  arithmetic,  if  systematically 
taught,  will  produce  at  least  twice  the  knowledge  and 
twice  the  power  in  a  given  time."  (McClellan  and 
Ames.)  Mr.  Cook  observes  that  a  large  share  of  the 
problems  in  fractions  and  in  other  subjects  usually 
worked  out  with  pencil  and  paper  can  be  worked  out 
orally.  In  fact,  they  are  much  quicker  and  better 
worked  orally,  e.g.  What  are  the  prime  factors  of  450  ? 
450  =  9  X  50  =  two  threes  as  factors,  two  fives,  and 
two. 

3.  The  most  discouraging  thing  in  grammar  grades 
is  the  flabby  helplessness  of  many  full-grown  children 
in  attacking  difficult  problems.  The  readiness  to 
grapple  with  difficulties,  the  eagerness  to  wage  war 
with  a  new  problem,  without  help  from  the  teacher, 
betokens  a  strong,  energetic  spirit  and  is  to  be  gotten 
at  all  hazards. 

4.  One  must  appeal  at  first  to  the  stronger  and 
more  stubborn  spirits,  and  through  them  stir  up  a  vig- 
orous class  spirit.  Many  naturally  capable  children 
fall  into  the  habit  of  being  fed  on  an  easy  diet.  Chil- 
dren must  become  conscious  of  their  powers. 


SUGGESTIONS   BEARING  ON   SCHOOL   STUDIES      III 

5.  One  of  the  most  delicate  and  diplomatic  prob- 
lems of  the  teacher  in  instruction  is  how  to  wisely 
help  children.  The  best  help  the  teacher  can  give 
them  is  to  convince  them  that  they  need  no  help. 

6.  Before  any  operations  are  performed,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  think  clearly  the  conditions  of  the  problem 
and  to  ask  one's  self  the  main  question  that  throws  all 
the  parts  into  proper  perspective.  The  teacher  can 
afford  to  spend  his  best  effort  and  work  very  cautiously 
with  children  while  they  are  struggling  with  the  general 
thought  side  of  a  problem,  the  effort  to  get  at  the  main 
idea  or  secret  that  unravels  the  whole. 

This  preliminary  survey,  this  effort  to  get  an  intelli- 
gent grasp  of  the  whole  situation  is  the  chief  stum- 
bling block  in  all  hard  problems.  The  reckoning 
processes  are  comparatively  easy.  The  common 
complaint  is  that  children  do  not  think ;  they  begin  to 
figure  on  a  problem  before  they  have  clearly  grasped 
its  conditions  and  meaning. 

7.  Often  children  fail  to  read  a  problem  intelli- 
gently. So  they  need  a  lesson  in  reading,  in  thought 
interpretation,  before  putting  pencil  to  paper.  This 
also  involves  clear  imagery  as  a  basis,  and  to  aid  this 
we  use  diagrams  or  other  modes  of  appeal  to  the  imag- 
ing power. 

8.  The  cultivation  of  self-reliant  power  in  solving  new 
problems  has  long  been  regarded  as  a  peculiar  virtue  of 
arithmetic.    To  fail  in  this  is  therefore  a  radical  failure. 


112      HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

9.  One  important  time  for  review  drills  is  the 
beginning  of  each  term.  "  Complaints  which  teachers 
generally  make  of  poor  work  in  the  preceding  grade 
are  not  infrequently  due  to  the  one  complaining; 
the  engine  is  rusty,  and  it  needs  oiling  before  the 
serious  start  is  made."  (Smith.)  In  most  grammar 
grades  children  will  be  found  rusty  in  what  they  have 
been  over,  and  it  is  wiser  to  clean  up  and  scour  up  the 
old  armor  than  to  plunge  forward  heedlessly  into  new 
conflicts. 

10.  It  is  necessary  sometimes  to  put  the  stronger 
pupils  at  work  independently  on  advanced  or  special 
lines,  and  meanwhile  to  devote  much  time  and  care  to 
slower  pupils.  Give  quicker,  abler  pupils  enough  to 
do,  and  allow  slower  pupils  time  to  think  according 
to  their  knowledge  and  brain  power. 

11.  Teachers  of  arithmetic  sometimes  forget  that 
children  have  emotions,  and  the  more  their  emotions 
are  unpleasantly  agitated,  the  less  capable  they  are 
of  strenuous  and  exact  mathematical  thinking. 

12.  The  grammar  grades  furnish  the  most  varied 
opportunities  for  reviewing,  mastering,  and  applying 
all  the  elementary  processes. 

13.  Arithmetic  in  these  grades  should  emphasize 
the  application  of  familiar  processes  of  reckoning  to 
the  whole  range  of  important  topics  in  the  school 
course  which  require  numerical  interpretation.  With- 
out this  illumination   from   mathematics  many  im- 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      1 13 

portant  facts  and  bodies  of  knowledge  in  business, 
in  geography,  history,  natural  science,  and  in  economic 
life  remain  hazy  and  unintelligible.  Many  of  the 
large  topics  in  history,  science,  and  geography  require 
a  mathematical  interpretation  by  means  of  a  series 
of  relevant  statistical  problems. 

14.  The  teacher  should  be  flexible  and  rationally 
sympathetic  in  adapting  his  standards  to  the  varying 
ability  and  needs  of  children. 

5.  Nature  Study  and  Science 

In  the  nature  study  and.  science  instruction  of  the 
common  school,  teachers  and  specialists  in  elementary 
science  have  not  yet  reached  a  consensus  of  opinion 
as  to  the  topics  best  suited  for  the  grades.  The 
methods  of  study  are  also  variable. 

A  few  of  the  simple  proposals  may  be  stated  as 
follows : 

1.  The  school  by  its  treatment  of  nature  lore  in  its 
various  aspects,  by  means  of  observations,  excursions, 
experiments  in  field,  laboratory,  and  garden  should 
produce  an  environment  in  which  the  love  of  nature 
grows  and  flourishes. 

2.  The  primary  grades  seem  to  be  well  adapted  to 
the  less  formal  and  less  intensive  study  of  nature, 
by  observations  on  outdoor  life,  weather  charts, 
spring  gardening,  etc. 


114      HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

3.  Children  are  to  find  out  the  facts  largely  by 
their  own  observation,  and  even  to  work  out  causal 
relations  and  think  out  conclusions  on  the  basis  of 
self-activity. 

4.  Drawings,  notebooks,  weather  records,  and  col- 
lections may  serve  to  express  their  growing  interest 
and  knowledge. 

5.  For  intermediate  and  grammar  grades  a  course 
of  study,  consisting  of  well-selected  objects  and  units 
of  thought,  is  needed  as  a  basis  for  connected  observa- 
tion and  study.  The  heaviest  work  should  have  been 
performed  for  the  teacher  by  those  who  select  and 
arrange  this  series  of  lesson  units. 

6.  Presupposing  that  the  teacher  has  an  adequate 
practical  knowledge  of  these  topics,  one  of  the  main 
questions  is:  how  to  get  the  problems  of  science 
presented  to  children  so  as  to  bring  them  to  the 
proper  exercise  of  their  independent  powers  of  obser- 
vation and  thought. 

7.  Every  plant  or  animal  is  a  living  mechanism 
whose  organs  have  been  developed  and  brought  into 
action  by  the  natural  forces  around  it.  Nature  is 
therefore  full  of  problems  upon  which  to  set  children 
to  work  to  observe  adaptations.  The  machines  and 
inventions  of  men  for  the  purpose  of  turning  nature's 
forces  into  useful  channels  are  also  embodied  or  ma- 
terialized problems. 

8.  To  ask  the  pivotal  question  which  centers  the 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      115 

child's  observation  and  thought  upon  one  of  these 
problems  and  to  keep  his  thought  moving  in  the  right 
direction  is  the  teacher's  business.  Nature  does  most 
of  the  talking,  if  the  teacher  knows  how  to  ask  a  few 
appropriate  questions. 

9.  The  life  histories  of  plants  and  animals  supply 
us  with  many  of  the  leading  units  of  study  which  fur- 
nish a  continuous  causal  development  and  illustrate 
many  of  the  fundamental  life  processes;  and  ma- 
chines which  embody  the  practical  applications  of 
science  to  life  also  furnish  a  very  valuable  series  of 
problems. 

10.  The  method  of  working  out  one  of  these  prob- 
lems requires  a  careful  and  intelligent  observation  of 
the  facts,  a  tracing  of  the  causal  sequence  running 
through  the  whole  topic,  a  comparison  with  other  simi- 
lar phenomena  observed  in  nature,  a  derivation  of 
the  law  or  principle  illustrated,  and  a  broader  survey 
to  comprehend  the  wider  application  of  this  law. 
Without  becoming  too  formal,  the  more  important 
studies  should  follow  this  movement.  A  life  history 
of  the  oak,  of  the  corn  plant,  of  the  mosquito,  the 
construction  and  working  of  a  pump  or  steam  engine, 
may  illustrate  this  idea  of  problem  solving  in  nature 
and  in  man's  inventions. 

n.  The  nature  study  excursion  into  the  fields, 
woods,  or  garden  is  one  of  the  chief  means  of  opening 
up  the  world  to  children  and  of  giving  stimulus  and 


Il6     HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

purpose  to  other  opportunities  for  observation  in  the 
world  about  them. 

12.  Upon  such  an  excursion  it  is  well  to  have  some 
controlling  purpose  to  which  observation  is  chiefly 
directed,  such  as  the  rinding  and  study  of  song  birds, 
or  of  some  particular  bird  like  the  flicker.  But 
general  observations  of  trees  and  plants,  of  insects, 
of  weather  phenomena,  may  also  come  in  for  a  good 
share  of  attention. 

13.  Another  important  kind  of  observation  is  found 
in  dealing  with  specimens  which  have  been  collected 
for  classroom  study.  The  inspection,  arrangement, 
and  grouping  of  specimens  brought  in  by  the  children 
and  teacher  may  be  carried  on  so  as  to  develop  a 
knowledge  of  important  groups  of  objects  in  nature, 
e.g.  trees,  insects,  wild  flowers,  and  weeds. 

14.  Sometimes  the  teacher  is  overkind  to  the 
children  in  showing  them  what  she  sees.  It  is  better 
for  the  teacher  to  keep  in  the  background  and  to  en- 
courage the  children  to  hunt  out  things  worth  seeing, 
dropping  a  hint  here  and  there  to  guide  their  obser- 
vations. 

15.  In  making  experiments  in  the  laboratory,  fore- 
thought should  be  exercised  by  the  teacher  in  provid- 
ing the  necessary  apparatus  and  equipment  for  suc- 
cessful experiment  or  in  directing  the  children  to 
do  so. 

16.  Often  a  diagram  is  the  easiest  and  simplest 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      1 17 

method  of  presenting  the  fundamental  idea,  especially 
when  the  inner  forces  in  the  process  are  not  visible, 
as  in  the  steam  engine,  and  in  the  circulation  of  the 
blood. 

17.  The  nature  study  and  science  teacher  should  be 
expert  in  the  use  of  graphic  modes  of  illustration,  such 
as  sections,  working  drawings,  diagrams,  models,  and 
apparatus.  Many  devices  are  necessary  to  objectify 
and  make  tangible  the  teachings  of  science,  e.g.  the 
blackboard  is  employed  to  illustrate  the  parts  and 
arrangements  of  flowers,  and  seeds,  the  growth  of 
trees,  the  parts  of  insects,  etc. 

18.  The  question,  to  what  extent  teachers  in  science 
lessons  should  present  to  children  facts  not  capable 
of  presentation  to  the  senses,  brings  up  an  interesting 
problem.  The  wild  duck  cannot  be  followed  toward 
the  pole  except  in  imagination.  The  unit  of  instruc- 
tion which  requires  to  be  cleared  up  as  a  whole,  must 
determine  to  what  extent  these  facts  beyond  the  child's 
observation  are  to  be  drawn  upon. 

19.  The  underlying  continuity  of  science  lessons 
through  the  grades  is  an  important  question  for  the 
future.  Elementary  science  lessons  group  themselves 
around  a  few  centers,  —  the  home,  the  school,  the  gar- 
den, the  woods,  and  home  fields.  The  recurring  seasons 
and  years  bring  these  topics  into  fresh  review,  and 
help  to  establish  this  unity.  Correlation  with  other 
studies  also  aids  to  unify  the  scattered  facts. 


Il8     HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

6.  History 

i.  In  primary  grades  there  is  no  regular  instruction 
in  history.  But  in  celebrating  holidays  like  Thanks- 
giving, the  Lincoln  and  Washington  birthdays,  we  use 
the  appropriate  stories  as  a  prelude  to  history. 

2.  In  fourth  and  fifth  grades  we  employ  chiefly  the 
pioneer  history  stories  of  our  own  country  and  of  the 
great  navigators  and  explorers,  like  Columbus  and 
Magellan.  The  hero  stories  of  other  countries,  as 
Bruce  of  Scotland,  Alfred  of  England,  Cincinnatus, 
Ulysses,  and  David,  should  also  find  place  in  the 
reading  or  history  lessons. 

3.  The  oral  treatment  of  these  stories  should  be 
developed  as  a  distinct  art.  The  rough  adventure  and 
realism  of  pioneer  life,  its  hardships  and  heroism, 
should  stand  out  plainly  in  vivid  narrative  and  de- 
scription. In  history  the  real  presentation  largely 
takes  the  place  of  the  object  in  natural  science  studies. 

4.  In  each  of  the  grades  (fourth  and  fifth)  a  half 
dozen  of  the  more  important  stories,  like  those  of 
John  Smith,  Champlain,  Lincoln,  George  Rogers 
Clark,  and  La  Salle,  should  be  elaborately  worked 
out  in  oral  lessons,  using  maps  and  blackboard  sketches, 
pictures  of  frontier  life  and  scenes,  forts,  flatboats, 
log  houses,  costumes,  weapons,  modes  of  travel, 
home  life,  and  customs. 

A   child's   introduction   to    history   through   oral 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      1 19 

treatment  becomes  thus  strong  and  real ;  he  forms  the 
habit  of  imaging  actions  and  situations  and  feels  a 
keen  interest  in  these  stalwart  characters.  This 
teaches  him  how  to  construct  and  realize  historical 
scenes. 

5.  Presupposing  such  an  introduction  into  the  real- 
ism of  history,  the  children  are  prepared  to  read  and 
interpret  other  similar  stories  for  themselves.  In  this 
manner  only  half  the  stories  would  require  a  full  oral 
treatment  by  skillful  instruction.  The  children  should 
learn  to  use  the  books  and  work  out  clearly  for  them- 
selves the  other  stories. 

6.  The  geographical  basis  for  these  stories,  dis- 
played in  blackboard  drawings  and  maps,  should  be 
unmistakably  clear.  The  teacher  should  accustom 
himself  to  sketch  maps  and  diagrams  freely  on  the 
board,  while  presenting  topics.  Let  the  children  later 
do  the  same. 

7.  The  teacher's  mind  should  shape  up  the  story 
into  a  series  of  unities  or  distinct  topics,  each  of  which 
has  a  central  point  with  a  body  of  associated  facts 
which  find  their  meaning  in  relation  to  this  center. 

8.  As  each  topic  is  presented  by  the  teacher,  dis- 
cussed and  reproduced  by  the  children,  it  should  be 
distinctly  phrased  and  placed  as  part  of  an  outline 
on  the  board.  This  outline  of  the  whole  story,  pre- 
served in  some  permanent  notebook  form,  becomes 
the  basis  for  reproductions,  comparisons,  and  final 
reviews. 


120     HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

Teachers  usually  have  much  difficulty,  at  first,  in 
making  and  in  adhering  to  such  clear  and  definite 
outlines.  The  power  to  get  at  the  essential  segments 
or  pivotal  points  in  the  story  is  a  logical  training  for 
the  teacher  and  is  worth  all  the  trouble  it  costs. 
Without  it  the  whole  treatment  falls  more  or  less  into 
confusion. 

9.  Under  a  teacher  who  will  do  this,  children  cannot 
fail  to  be  trained  into  logical  and  rational  modes  of 
thinking. 

10.  Adequate  reproduction  of  the  story  by  the  chil- 
dren, sometimes  oral,  occasionally  written,  is  indis- 
pensable. Complete  sentence  construction  and  con- 
nected discourse,  with  but  little  suggestion  or  question 
by  the  teacher,  make  the  true  standard  of  requirement. 

11.  Good  oral  instruction  is  a  doubly  difficult  art, 
requiring  masterly  work  on  the  teacher's  part  and 
a  masterly  response  on  the  part  of  the  children. 
When  well  done,  it  stimulates  interest  and  attention, 
develops  logical  thinking  power,  stirs  up  self-activity 
in  thought,  and  brings  ideas  into  good  language  ex- 
pression. 

12.  History  stories,  when  clearly  thought  out,  have 
in  them  a  natural  logic.  They  trace  out  a  causal, 
chronological  sequence.  Every  good  story  is  a  series 
of  problems,  each  one  leading  on  to  the  next.  The 
story  of  the  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition  is  a  string 
of  adventurous  problems,  a  succession  of  acute  situa- 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      121 

tions,  calling  for  ingenuity  and  good  judgment  in 
meeting  new  and  strange  difficulties.  Keen  foresight 
and  thoughtful  adjustment  are  in  constant  demand. 
What  a  chance  is  this  for  setting  children's  thoughts 
free  to  struggle  with  difficulties  ! 

13.  One  peculiar  advantage  of  the  pioneer  stories 
is  that  the  situations  are  simple  and  crude,  such  as  a 
child  can  grasp.  Stories  taken  from  later,  more 
complex,  topics  are  not  so  easy  to  work  with.  They 
belong  to  a  later  period  of  history. 

14.  These  stories  deal  with  typical  situations  and 
admit  of  a  wide  range  of  comparisons,  an  important 
means  of  self-reliant  thinking,  e.g.  compare  Fremont 
with  Lewis  and  Clark;  George  Rogers  Clark  with 
Cortez ;  Columbus  with  Magellan ;  Washington  with 
Lincoln. 

15.  There  is  no  fixed  order  in  the  arrangement  of 
frontier  stories.  Chronology  is  relatively  unimpor- 
tant. The  main  requirement  is  that  of  a  complete, 
well-rounded  story,  with  a  rich  setting  in  life,  and  a 
strong  exhibition  of  character. 

16.  When  we  begin  with  the  settlement  of  America 
and  the  colonial  period,  we  take  up  history  in  its  or- 
derly and  systematic  development,  including  chrono- 
logical sequence. 

17.  In  the  colonial  period  we  meet  men  (and  colo- 
nies) who  represent  those  important  ideas  that  have 
continued  to  develop  through  our  whole  history  and 


122      HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

are  still  operative.  These  ideas,  in  their  growth,  give 
us  a  basis  for  strong  continuity  of  thought  in  the 
course  of  study. 

1 8.  The  big  units  in  the  colonial  period  have  been 
selected  with  much  care,  and  each  should  be  presented 
in  a  large,  comprehensive,  and  luminous  description. 
A  full  treatment  of  two  or  three  leading  topics  of  each 
of  the  four  principal  colonies,  with  plenty  of  time  for 
description  and  biographical  detail,  is  better  than  a 
more  condensed  and  uniform  treatment  of  all  the 
thirteen  colonies. 

19.  A  few  of  the  leading  biographies,  such  as  Win- 
throp,  Penn,  Franklin,  and  Berkeley,  are  worthy  of 
full  descriptive  treatment  as  a  means  of  graphic, 
almost  dramatic,  presentation  of  colonial  happenings. 
Biographies  of  real  leaders  are  good  centers  of  organi- 
zation. 

20.  The  completer  study  of  four  or  five  colonies, 
one  after  another,  furnishes  an  uncommonly  good  test 
of  the  plan  of  reviews  by  comparison.  Such  a  study 
brings  children  into  close  touch  with  the  natural 
development  of  American  ideas.  It  is  a  good  illustra- 
tion of  inductive  method. 

21.  In  all  later  studies  children  should  be  allowed  to 
trace  back  the  causes,  to  return  again  and  again  to 
former  studies,  and  to  pick  up  the  threads  of  connec- 
tion between  past  and  present.  The  study  of  the 
past  should  lead  up  to  and  explain  the  present. 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      123 

22.  Throughout  the  colonial  studies  it  is  necessary 
to  go  deeper  into  the  causes  of  emigration  from  Europe, 
the  religious  persecutions,  the  desire  for  colonial  ex- 
pansion, and  into  conditions  of  life  and  government 
among  the  Old  World  states  that  first  peopled  America. 
The  first  half  of  many  leading  topics  lies  in  Europe. 

23.  In  the  study  of  the  colonies,  children  should 
learn  to  use  books  of  reference,  biographies,  source 
materials,  maps,  and  chapters  or  extracts  from  the 
larger  histories,  such  as  Irving,  Fiske,  and  Bancroft. 
Children  must  be  taught  systematically  how  to  use 
books  and  references. 

24.  In  describing  the  customs  and  character  of 
people  in  different  colonies,  a  picturesque  variety  is 
found  among  the  sober  Puritans,  the  mirth-loving 
French,  the  solid  Dutch,  the  broad-brimmed  Quakers, 
the  Germans,  and  Scotch-Irish,  to  say  nothing  of 
Indians  and  Negroes.  We  hardly  need  to  go  abroad 
to  find  richness  and  variety  in  life. 

25.  As  the  leading  colonies  are  studied  one  after 
another  and  compared  in  their  struggle  with  Royal 
governors,  in  their  developing  constitutions  and  modes 
of  government,  and  as  the  closer  relations  of  the  colo- 
nies with  each  other  slowly  develop,  we  come  into 
close  touch  with  the  natural  growth  of  American 
ideas. 

26.  In  teaching  any  of  these  larger  topics,  abundant 
and  well-organized  knowledge  is  the  first  essential. 


124      HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

27.  The  regular  reading  work  of  the  schools,  by 
selections  from  "The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish," 
"Grandfather's  Chair,"  and  other  similar  literary 
materials,  will  contribute  much  to  the  enlargement 
and  enrichment  of  history  studies. 

GRAMMAR   GRADE   HISTORY 

i.  The  period  from  1760,  with  the  withdrawal  of 
France  from  America,  to  1789,  when  our  federal  Con- 
stitution went  into  effect,  deserves  a  full  year's  study 
in  the  grammar  school. 

2.  A  few  leading  topics  of  fundamental  importance 
for  this  period  can  be  selected  for  enlarged  treatment, 
to  serve  as  centers  of  thought  and  as  types  of  historical 
method  in  elementary  study. 

3.  The  biography  of  Samuel  Adams  during  the 
eleven  years  preceding  the  battle  of  Lexington  is  a 
good  center  upon  which  to  focus  the  study  of  causes 
leading  to  the  Revolution.  Adams  was  such  a  com- 
plete representative  and  molder  of  New  England 
spirit,  that  his  biography  gives  the  very  essence  of  the 
struggle  against  England.  Then  compare  him  and 
his  work  with  that  of  other  leaders  in  New  England, 
in  the  Middle  and  Southern  colonies. 

4.  Burgoyne's  Invasion  is  a  good  example  of  a 
large  historical  topic,  complex  in  its  relations  but 
simple  in  its  basal  idea.  A  full  descriptive  account 
of  this  campaign  would  acquaint  children  with  the 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      125 

difficulties,  surprises,  horrors,  and  shrewd  forms  of 
strategy  in  military  movements.  A  study  of  its 
results  is  wide-reaching  in  import. 

5.  The  person  and  influence  of  Washington  are  the 
central  point  of  interest  and  of  interpretation  for  the 
leading  topics  of  the  war. 

6.  Benjamin  Franklin's  career  in  France  during 
the  war  is  not  only  picturesque  and  interesting,  but 
it  is  also  the  point  of  view  from  which  to  judge  the 
European  situation.  By  his  bringing  France  into 
coalition  with  the  Colonies,  the  whole  aspect  of  the 
war  was  changed  and  final  success  made  possible. 

7.  The  life  of  Robert  Morris  is  the  best  center  from 
which  to  study  the  distressing  financial  difficulties 
of  the  Revolution. 

8.  The  Convention  of  1787  furnishes  material  for 
studying  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  important 
events  in  the  world's  history.  For  children,  one  of 
the  simplest  modes  of  comprehending  it  is  to  study 
somewhat  carefully  a  few  of  the  leading  men  in  the 
convention,  so  as  to  get  the  strong  individualistic 
point  of  view  of  each.  In  this  convention  all  the  most 
powerful  tendencies  of  American  history,  with  their 
roots  deeply  embedded  in  the  past,  were  represented. 
By  reviews  and  comparisons  let  the  children  discover 
that  much  of  the  previous  history  of  the  country,  in 
essence,  is  registered  in  the  Constitution. 

9.  The  Revolutionary  history  gave  rise  to  much 


126      HANDBOOK   OF   PRACTICE   FOR  TEACHERS 

of  our  best  ballad  literature,  and  to  many  of  the  ora- 
tions which  have  become  standard  expressions  of  the 
patriotic  American  spirit. 

10.  The  problem  for  the  teacher  in  dealing  with  this 
period  of  our  history  is  to  collect  and  organize  the 
complex  and  abundant  material  of  these  central 
topics.  This  involves  the  proper  use  of  textbooks 
and  of  reference  materials. 

n.  The  proper  class  discussion  of  such  topics  in- 
volves, first,  the  determination  of  the  main  heads  in 
proper  sequence ;  second,  the  grouping  of  details,  facts, 
and  descriptions  around  these  heads;  third,  the  re- 
flective study  of  causal  and  logical  relations ;  fourth, 
comparisons  on  the  basis  of  likenesses  and  differences. 

THE   CONSTITUTIONAL  PERIOD 

i.  How  to  deal  wisely  with  a  few  large  topics  of 
the  constitutional  period  is  the  problem  of  the  last 
part  of  the  grammar  school. 

2.  Most  of  these  large  topics  have  a  continuous, 
causal  sequence  extending  through  this  whole  period. 
For  example,  the  growth  in  territory  up  to  the  present, 
the  expansion  of  slavery  and  the  negro  problem,  immi- 
gration with  its  successive  changes  and  increasing 
importance,  the  westward  expansion  of  population, 
trade  and  production,  inventions,  etc. 

3.  The  continuity,  the  causal  sequence  of  develop- 
ment in  each  of  these  large  topics,  should  be  main- 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      127 

tained,  in  spite  of   the  growing  complexity  and  in- 
tricacy of  our  more  recent  history. 

4.  The  gigantic  growth  and  progress  of  our  nation 
in  its  larger,  more  important  aspects  should  be  clearly 
demonstrated.  The  spirit  of  the  people,  the  repre- 
sentative men,  and  the  dominant  ideas  which  lie  at 
the  basis  of  this  remarkable  growth  are  to  be  clearly 
set  forth. 

5.  By  following  up  these  main  topics  consistently 
through  our  history,  boys  and  girls  will  find  that  our 
present  problems  are  merely  the  continuation  of  these 
long-developing  ideas  and  issues.  One  leading  pur- 
pose is  to  understand  the  present  in  the  light  of  the 
past. 

6.  We  must  take  time  to  elaborate  these  large 
topics,  to  gather  up  and  organize  a  body  of  facts  suffi- 
cient to  bring  out  the  full,  clear  meaning  of  each  of 
these  continuously  expanding  ideas  or  principles. 
The  quick  hothouse  methods  of  memorizing  a  series 
of  important  facts,  an  epitome  of  American  history, 
is  thoroughly  artificial  and  unproductive. 

7.  In  the  eighth  grade  we  have  the  best  opportunity 
for  careful  reviews  by  means  of  systematic  compari- 
sons of  later  events  with  those  studied  in  earlier 
periods.  For  example,  modes  of  travel  to-day,  on 
steamboats  and  railroads,  may  be  compared  with 
riding  by  horseback  or  in  stagecoaches  in  colonial 
times  and  later.     To  keep  children  thoughtful  in  see- 


128      HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

ing  resemblances  and  contrasts  between  the  earlier 
and  later  events  is  the  true  method  of  rational  and 
interesting  review. 

8.  The  opportunity  for  problem-solving  is  furnished 
on  a  large  scale  in  our  later  history ;  e.g.  when  Ham- 
ilton took  charge  of  the  treasury  under  Washington, 
he  had  the  great  problem  of  restoring  credit  and  of 
establishing  a  sound  financial  system  for  the  new 
government  just  starting  out  on  its  great  career.  Let 
the  children  join  with  Hamilton  in  working  out  this 
problem. 

9.  The  history  taught  in  the  eighth  grade  should 
be  a  constant  commentary  on  the  Constitution.  The 
history  of  the  last  hundred  twenty-five  years  has  been 
a  series  of  practical  tests  of  the  strength  and  flexibil- 
ity of  the  Constitution  in  meeting  the  demands  of  a 
rapidly  growing  country.  This  is  the  best  method 
for  the  study  of  civil  government. 

10.  In  the  eighth  grade,  as  in  earlier  years,  there 
should  be  a  concentration  of  study  upon  a  few  of  the 
great  biographies,  such  as  Hamilton,  John  Quincy 
Adams,  Daniel  Webster,  Lincoln,  and  Fulton. 

11.  A  well-organized  textbook  containing  a  simple 
introductory  treatment  of  the  more  important  topics 
will  furnish  the  general  framework  for  the  reception 
of  fuller  material  from  other  sources,  from  larger 
special  histories,  from  biographies  and  source  books, 
and  from  special  contributions  by  the  teacher.    A 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      129 

good  textbook  is  invaluable  as  a  guide  through  the 
labyrinth  of  history. 

12.  In  the  assignment  of  the  lesson  we  should  pave 
the  way  for  a  more  intelligent  and  interesting  study  of 
the  textbook  and  for  the  proper  selection  and  use  of 
references,  sources,  etc. 

13.  Chronology  offers  a  necessary  framework  within 
which  to  arrange  the  materials  of  history.  The 
grouping  of  history  into  periods  and  epochs  is  valu- 
able, and  the  concentration  of  events  around  a  few 
important  dates  is  advantageous. 

14.  "A  successful  teacher  must  have  more  than 
mere  accurate  information  and  professional  knowl- 
edge. He  needs  to  have  a  living  sympathy  with  the 
tale  he  tells.  He  must  know  how  to  bring  out  the 
dramatic  aspects  of  the  story."  (Report  of  the 
Committee  of  Seven.) 

7.  Music 

I.  From  the  teacher's  point  of  view : 

a.  It  must  be  remembered  that  singing  is  but 

one  form  of  voice  expression.  The  elements 
of  this  form  are  time,  pitch,  quality,  and 
force;  and  upon  these  elements  and  their 
variations  is  based  the  art  of  teaching  vocal 
music  to  children. 

b.  There  is  a  vast  difference  between  learning  a 

K 


130      HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

song  that  one  may  sing  it  well,  and  learning 
a  song  that  one  may  teach  it  to  children. 

c.  The  teacher  needs  to  acquire  the  power  of 

judging  and  choosing  those  songs  best 
suited  to  the  children.  A  child's  song 
should  be  simple,  bright,  and  happy,  both 
in  word  and  melody.  Above  all,  the 
thought  must  be  interesting  and  worth 
while. 

d.  The  teacher  in  starting  a  new  song  must 

know :  (1)  the  key  of  the  song ;  (2)  upon 
what  note  the  song  begins;  (3)  how  to 
keep  the  time;  (4)  method  of  approach 
and  attack  upon  the  new  elements  presented 
in  this  particular  song;  (5)  method  of 
closing  the  day's  lesson  upon  this  song. 

e.  Since  singing  is,  as  has  been  indicated,  one 

form  of  vocal  expression,  attention  must 
be  given  to  the  interpretation  of  the  thought 
and  motive  which  lie  back  of  the  song,  as 
well  as  to  the  bare  technique  of  the  notes 
and  their  rendition. 
II.   From  the  pupils'  point  of  view: 

a.  There  is  but  one  correct  singing  position  — 

erect.  Likewise  there  is  but  one  position 
for  the  books. 

b.  Children  must  learn  to  listen  for  the  tone  — 

C  above  middle  C  —  always  given  softly 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      13 1 

by  the  leader.  In  the  upper  grades  children 
should  be  taught  to  find  all  keys  from  this 
C. 

c.  Children  should  sing  softly  and  within  the 

compass  of  their  voices.  Under  these  con- 
ditions there  is  but  little  danger  of  singing 
too  much.  Children's  voices  are  usually 
limited  to  the  lines  and  spaces  of  the  staff. 
The  mouth  must  be  well  opened,  and  the 
lower  jaw  should  drop  easily.  Constant 
practice  with  open  vowels  to  secure  the 
natural  use  of  the  lips  and  jaw  will  be  of 
much  help. 

d.  Do  not  let  children  sing  with  expressionless 

faces.  Make  them  enjoy  the  song  and  the 
singing  of  it,  whatever  the  cost.  It  may  be 
well  to  stop  in  the  midst  of  a  song  and  en- 
gage pupils  in  conversation  to  the  end  that 
naturalness  may  be  secured,  and  that  the 
strained  and  contracted  throat  tone  may  be 
relieved. 

e.  With  monotones,  work  upon  the  basis  of  the 

natural    speaking    voice.     Let    the    child 
imitate  whistles  or  steam  cars,  play  Indian, 
cuckoo,  wind ;  as  a  last  resort,  hum. 
III.    The  movement  in  teaching  a  song : 

In  all  good  teaching  the  movement  is  concerned, 
first,  with  the  concreting  of  the  central  ideas ; 


132      HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

second,  with  the  abstracting  of  these  worth- 
while units ;  and  third,  with  their  compari- 
son. This  holds  as  true  in  music  teaching 
as  in  the  teaching  of  other  subjects.  Each 
rote  song  represents  a  thought  unit,  and  in 
the  mastering  of  these  rote  songs  and  similar 
exercises  there  is  acquired  a  large  stock  of 
concrete  materials ;  for  example,  knowledge 
of  time,  pitch,  key,  notation,  phrasing,  etc., 
through  the  entire  gamut  of  elementary 
technique.  This  vast  mass  is  valueless  as  it 
stands.  It  becomes  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance, however,  the  instant  we  abstract  from 
the  heterogeneous  stock  those  essentials 
which  go  to  build  up  a  well-balanced,  sym- 
metrical organization  known  as  a  song, 
which  is  always  a  central  idea  itself  or  is 
representative  of  it.  Other  central  ideas  or 
songs  are  eventually  mastered,  and  these 
afford  bases  of  valuable  comparisons.  In 
brief,  then,  the  movement  in  teaching  vocal 
music  to  children  is  from  the  rote  song  with 
its  wealth  of  concrete  detail  to  the  com- 
pleted idea  which  we  know  as  a  purposeful 
song.  Accordingly,  we  shall  concern  our- 
selves first  with  the  acquisition  of  the  body 
of  preliminary  knowledge. 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      133 
CONCRETING  THE   IDEA 

The  first  requisite  toward  the  attainment  of  a  valid 
stock  of  music  experiences  upon  which  to  base  the 
work  is  in  the  training  of  the  ear.  Ear  training  has 
three  stages  or  phases :  observation,  recognition,  and 
reproduction. 

1.  Observation.  —  If  children  are  taught  to  listen 
to  certain  definite  sounds  (whistles,  birds,  singing, 
etc.),  they  will  soon  observe  something  as  to  the  "up- 
ness"  and  "downness"  of  tones ;  also  the  kind  of  tone 
(high  or  low,  shrill  or  sweet;  long  or  short;  far  or 
near).  How  does  the  bird  sing?  the  whistle  sound? 
the  bee  ?  etc.  Sing  to  the  children ;  how  many  long 
sounds  ?  short  ?    Did  you  sing  up  or  down  ? 

2.  Recognition.  —  Sing  songs  they  know  (humming). 
Play  songs  on  the  organ,  and  see  if  the  children  know 
them.  Give  the  children  do,  and  then  play  separate 
notes  on  the  organ.  Have  the  children  give  you  the 
syllables. 

3.  Reproduction.  —  The  last  step  in  ear  training 
is  writing  the  melody  on  the  staff.  This  should  be 
followed  by  singing  or  playing  the  notes,  or  by  writing 
the  numerals. 

8.  Spelling 

1.  A  careful  drill  in  phonics  and  in  clear  phonetic 
analysis  of  words  throughout  the  grades  is  a  good 


134     HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

general  basis  for  spelling.  For,  contrary  to  the  usual 
notion,  the  large  majority  of  English  words  is  spelled 
phonetically,  or  nearly  so. 

2.  Spelling  should  be  mainly  directed  to  the  mas- 
tery of  common  words  in  daily  use,  such  as  children 
ordinarily  make  use  of  in  composition  and  letter  writ- 
ing; such  words  as  thought,  said,  stayed,  believe, 
although,  once,  knife,  aid,  which,  till,  repeat,  price, 
idea,  sentence,  freeze,  drown,  etc. 

3.  Words  of  rather  uncommon  occurrence,  or  those 
used  only  in  literary  writings,  as  of  Irving  or  Macaulay, 
may  be  overlooked,  e.g.  surmised,  acquiesce,  inces- 
santly, designated,  apprehension,  mysterious,  precipi- 
tation, etc.  At  any  rate,  the  emphasis  and  drill 
should  be  placed  on  the  common  words. 

4.  The  chief  rules  of  spelling,  and  those  governing 
the  formation  of  plurals,  should  be  fully  illustrated, 
memorized,  and  applied  until  correct  habit  has  been 
formed. 

5.  Spelling  exercises  should  be  chiefly  executed  in 
writing  as  the  final  and  common  form  of  applica- 
tion. 

6.  Good  standards  of  correct  spelling  should  be 
maintained  in  all  kinds  of  written  work  in  other 
studies,  in  composition,  letter  writing,  etc. 

7.  Drills  are  needed  from  time  to  time  in  the  cor- 
rect spelling  of  common  geographical  and  historical 
names. 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      135 

8.  Teachers  should  practice  the  distinct  articulation 
of  words  in  giving  out  spelling  lessons. 

9.  In  learning  new  and  difficult  words  point  out  and 
emphasize  the  peculiar  difficulty  of  each  new  word. 

9.   Drawing 

1.  The  art  of  drawing,  when  applied  to  sketching 
and  blackboard  illustration  in  other  studies,  is  of 
great  value  in  many  ways. 

2.  Even  without  a  knowledge  of  the  technique  of 
drawing,  teachers  of  geography,  history,  science,  and 
other  studies  may  use  the  blackboard  freely  for 
sketching  and  diagramming  to  great  advantage. 

3.  On  the  other  hand,  students  who  have  had  full 
courses  in  drawing  appear  to  be  slow  and  hesitating 
in  applying  this  very  useful  art  to  the  other  studies. 
This  fault  seems  to  show  a  lack  of  courage  to  launch 
out  into  the  use  of  an  art  in  new  situations. 

4.  Many  ideas  can  be  more  quickly  and  clearly 
presented  to  children  by  means  of  a  drawing  than  in 
any  other  way.  A  simple  drawing  placed  on  the  board 
in  half  a  minute  will  clear  up  a  difficulty  better  than  a 
long  verbal  explanation  or  description. 

5.  Free-hand  sketching  on  the  blackboard  in  con- 
nection with  nearly  all  studies  is  an  indispensable 
means  of  prompt  and  clear  illustration,  and  of  economy 
of  time  in  teaching. 


136      HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

6.  The  teacher's  example  in  the  free  use  of  the  black- 
board before  the  children  in  sketching  and  illustrating 
points  is  quickly  taken  up  by  the  children  through 
imitation,  and  becomes  a  very  important  means  of 
expression. 

10.   Writing 

1.  Board  writing  in  primary  grades  should  be  with 
a  large  swing,  free  from  small  cramp. 

2.  The  letters  should  be  made  round,  full,  and 
plain. 

3.  The  teacher's  board  writing  in  movement  and 
form  should  be  a  contagious  example  for  the  children. 

4.  Children's  early  writing  on  paper  calls  for  a  free 
movement  and  large  hand  in  broad  spacing. 

5.  In  intermediate  and  grammar  grades,  children  are 
to  be  steadily  and  consistently  trained  in  position  and 
free  arm  movement,  until  a  reasonably  correct  form  is 
gained. 

6.  Small,  cramped  writing  and  finger  action  should 
be  avoided  by  constant  encouragement  to  arm  move- 
ment. 

7.  If  several  teachers  in  succeeding  grades  follow 
the  same  plan  of  easy  arm  movement,  the  habit  can 
be  formed. 

8.  The  written  work  of  children  in  language  exer- 
cises and  in  other  studies  should  be  quietly  held  to  a 
good  standard  of  neatness  and  care. 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      137 

9.  Steady  and  consistent  effort  through  the  grades 
following  a  common  purpose  and  method  are  necessary 
to  establish  good  habit  in  writing. 

11.   The  Manual  Arts 

1.  The  purpose  of  the  manual  arts  is  to  equip  chil- 
dren with  the  controlling  ideas  and  experiences  of  the 
primary  industrial  arts. 

2.  In  working  out  any  unit  of  construction  or  con- 
crete object,  correct  thinking  on  the  basis  of  facts  is 
the  first  essential.  A  correct  plan  of  construction 
presupposes  full  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  con- 
struction and  clear  foresight  into  practical  condi- 
tions. It  is  a  strenuous  and  progressive  thought 
problem. 

3.  The  execution  of  a  well-formed  plan  requires 
some  degree  of  skill  in  the  use  of  tools  and  also  some 
knowledge  of  materials. 

4.  The  early  constructions  of  children  are  necessa- 
rily crude.  Through  the  grades  there  should  be  a 
gradually  improving  standard  of  skill  in  work  and  of 
excellence  in  the  product.  A  high  degree  of  skill  and 
accuracy  in  any  art  is  not  required  in  the  elementary 
school. 

5.  In  executing  complete  projects  of  construction, 
as  a  table  or  book  or  bonnet,  there  is  an  excellent 
chance  to  encourage  self-reliance  and  initiative  and 


138      HANDBOOK  OF  PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

practical  sense  in  dealing  independently  with  tools 
and  materials. 

6.  Orderliness  in  the  use  and  care  of  tools  and  mate- 
rials in  shop  work  is  of  primary  value. 

7.  The  choice  of  artistic  in  preference  to  inartistic 
forms  in  children's  constructions  should  be  steadily 
cultivated. 

8.  The  school  should  encourage  the  practical  appli- 
cation of  manual  skill  and  knowledge  to  other  studies 
and  to  school  and  home  problems  and  needs. 

9.  Problems  of  construction  furnish  excellent  con- 
crete types  of  correct  method  in  teaching.  Teachers 
generally  can  well  afford  to  acquire  some  skill  and 
practical  acquaintance  with  the  processes,  tools,  and 
materials  of  the  primary  arts. 

12.  Cross  Applications  of  Knowledge  between  Studies 

1.  As  soon  as  children  have  learned  to  read,  at 
the  end  of  the  third  or  fourth  grade,  they  should  be 
held  to  a  vigorous  use  of  this  ability  in  other  studies. 
Teachers  should  see  to  it  that  they  interpret  keenly 
and  express  fittingly  whatever  they  read.  In  this 
sense,  all  lessons  become  applied  reading,  reading  put 
to  its  real  uses. 

2.  If  we  could  see  to  it  that  children  in  the  inter- 
mediate and  grammar  grades  apply  their  reading 
power  to  history,  arithmetic,  and  other  studies,  with 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      139 

lively  appreciation  and  with  full  natural  energy  based 
on  a  sense  of  value,  we  could  almost  dispense  with 
regular  reading  exercises. 

3.  In  this  sense  the  actual  reading  of  the  problem 
in  arithmetic,  or  of  a  paragraph  in  history,  is  a  demon- 
stration that  the  child  has  clearly  thought  the  thing 
out,  has  indeed  already  performed  the  main  step  in 
a  thought  process.  On  the  other  hand,  dull,  unre- 
sponsive reading  is  proof  that  the  child's  mind  has  no 
appetite  for  the  subject. 

4.  Language  lessons  are  a  device  for  teaching  chil- 
dren the  correct  usages  in  English,  and  for  starting 
them  along  right  lines.  But  these  beginnings  of  habits, 
made  in  language  lessons,  are  to  be  strengthened  and 
matured  by  close  attention  to  correct  language  in 
all  the  other  studies.  Every  subject  either  builds 
up  and  strengthens  a  child's  language  power,  or  else 
it  weakens  language  by  confirming  him  in  faulty 
usages.  Since  language  is  the  chief  medium  of  ex- 
pression in  all  studies  and  throughout  life,  a  steady 
consistency  in  requiring  correct  usage  is  a  basal 
necessity. 

5.  Drawing  and  sketching,  in  simple,  illustrative 
ways,  should  be  generally  applied,  as  a  means  of  ex- 
pression, in  all  kinds  of  school  studies.  Freedom 
and  versatility  of  expression  by  graphic  devices  are 
extremely  valuable  to  teachers,  and  children  easily 
drop  into  these  modes  by  imitation.    This  applica- 


140      HANDBOOK  OF   PRACTICE  FOR  TEACHERS 

tion  of  motor  activities  to  other  studies  clarifies  and 
reenforces  thought  in  a  quick  and  economical  manner. 

6.  The  constructive  activities  of  the  manual  arts, 
when  applied  to  geography,  and  history,  and  science, 
and  even  to  literature,  in  reconstructing  objects  and 
scenes,  are  a  powerful  means  of  realization. 

7.  Spelling  and  phonics,  as  phases  of  language, 
are  of  universal  application.  They  are  a  basal  ele- 
ment in  all  clear  oral  speech,  and  spelling  is  the  basis 
of  correct  form  in  written  work.  The  early  inculca- 
tion of  correct  habits,  and  persistent  care  throughout 
the  grades  in  maintaining  them  in  all  studies,  point 
out  the  only  road  to  efficiency. 

8.  Geography  and  history  are  so  closely  linked 
together  that  neither  can  avoid  a  constant  dependence 
on  the  other.  History  without  maps  and  physical 
conditions  would  be  very  lame,  and  geography  without 
historical  introductions  and  associations  would  lose 
its  background  and  much  of  its  meaning.  Geography 
is  also  closely  bound  up  with  natural  science  and  mathe- 
matics, and  its  names  are  derived  from  all  the  varied 
languages  of  the  earth.  Much  of  the  best  literature 
is  geographically  conditioned.  Geography  connects 
up  in  vital  ways  with  nearly  all  studies  and  best  illus- 
trates the  necessity  for  frequent  excursions  back  and 
forth  between  the  studies. 

9.  The  numerous  ways  in  which  nature  study  and 
science  are  applied  to  other  studies  and  contribute  to 


SUGGESTIONS  BEARING  ON  SCHOOL  STUDIES      141 

their  better  understanding  make  necessary  a  con- 
stant interpretation  of  other  studies  from  a  basis  of 
scientific  knowledge;  e.g.  applied  science  interprets 
most  of  our  modern  inventions  and  industrial  pro- 
cesses, our  sanitary  improvements,  etc. 

10.  Even  arithmetic  is  becoming  a  social  study, 
furnishing  the  thought  processes  and  modes  of  cal- 
culating by  which  we  estimate  values  in  history, 
geography,  science,  and,  more  or  less,  in  all  natural 
and  human  affairs. 

n.  The  imperative  need  for  applying  knowledge 
and  habits  gained  in  one  study  to  other  studies  appears 
to  be  universal.  We  may  well  draw  the  conclusion 
that  the  knowledge  gained  in  one  study  is  chiefly 
valuable  because  it  can  be  applied  to  the  interpreta- 
tion of  other  studies.  Knowledge  gained  in  one 
study  and  not  applied  to  other  studies  fails  to  function 
and  is  scarcely  worth  the  trouble  of  acquiring. 


'HE  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a 
few  of  the  Macmillan  books  on  kindred  subjects 


Methods  in  Elementary  Education 

COVERING  ALL  GRADES   OF  THE  COMMON  SCHOOL 

By   DR.    CHARLES    A.    McMURRY 

In  these  General  and  these  Special  Method  books  the  teacher 
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Course  of  Study  (Special   Method)   in  the  Eighth 
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Volume  I,  Grades  1-4 $.75 

Volume  II,  Grades  5-8 75 

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Special  Method  in  Reading  in  the  Grades    .        .        .     1.25 

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Method  of  the  Recitation 90 


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By  CHARLES  A.   McMURRY 

Designed  as  a  complete  series  of  early  history  stories  of  the  Eastern,  Middle, 
and  Western  States,  suitable  as  an  introduction  for  children  to  American 
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Cloth       i2mo       40  cents  each 


Pioneers  on  Land  and  Sea 

The  first  of  the  three  volumes  deals  with  the  chief  ocean  explorers,  Columbus 
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ico, such  as  Champlain,  Smith,  Hudson,  De  Leon,  Cortes.  These  stories  fur- 
nish the  gateway  through  which  the  children  of  our  Atlantic  States  should  enter 
the  fields  of  History.  The  attempt  is  to  render  these  complete  and  interesting 
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Pioneers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 

Such  men  as  La  Salle,  Boone,  Robertson,  George  Rogers  Clark,  Lincoln,  and 
Sevier  supply  a  group  of  simple  biographical  stories  which  give  the  children  a 
remarkably  good  introduction  to  History.  Teachers  are  beginning  to  believe 
that  children  should  begin  with  tales  of  their  own  home  and  of  neighboring 
states,  and  then  move  outward  from  this  center.  For  eastern  children  these 
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In  some  respects  these  western  stories  are  more  interesting  and  striking  than 
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and  mountains  are  full  of  interesting  and  instructive  incidents  and  of  heroic 
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admirable  qualities,  and  the  difficulties  and  dangers  which  they  overcame 
place  them  among  the  heroes  who  will  always  attract  and  instruct  American 
children.  Incidentally,  these  narratives  give  the  best  of  all  introductions  to 
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NEW   GEOGRAPHIES 


First  Book  (complete)  $0.65  Second  Book  (complete)  $1.10 
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They  make  Home  Geography  the  basis  of  study  for  World 
Geography. 

They  use  type-forms  developed  from  Home  Geography  as  a  basis 
for  interpretation,  appreciation,  understanding,  and  definition. 

They  make  descriptive  matter  vivid  by  appropriate  illustration; 
the  facts  plain  by  diagram,  graph,  or  product-map ;  the  visualization 
complete  by  appropriate  physical  or  colored  map,  studied  in  connec- 
tion with  the  text. 

They  emphasize  the  essentials  by  synoptical  outline.  The  leading 
facts  stand  out. 

They  retain  interest  and  make  sure  the  application  by  timely 
suggestions,  reviews,  and  comparisons. 

They  treat  each  topic  in  its  relation  to  man,  introduce  the  problem 
question,  and  bring  out  cause  and  effect  relation. 

They  appeal  to  the  child's  interest  in  human  life  and  activity,  his 
wonder  and  curiosity,  his  sympathy  and  self-activity. 

They  are  adapted  to  the  best  methods  of  teaching  and  they  suggest 
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The  books  are  mechanically  perfect.    The  maps  are  bound  in. 


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The  Golden  Rule  Series 

By   E.   HERSHEY   SNEATH,   GEORGE   HODGES   and 
EDWARD  LAWRENCE   STEVENS 


READING  WITH  A  MORAL  PURPOSE 


This  is  a  new  series  of  Literary  Readers  containing  selections 
carefully  chosen  for  the  vivid  portrayal  of  ideal  beauty  in  human 
life  and  character.  They  emphasize  right  action  in  human  con- 
duct and  suggest  the  correct  moral  response  to  situations  within 
the  experience  of  the  child.  While  avoiding  religious  instruction, 
moral  precepts  and  lectures,  they  teach  the  simple  attainable 
virtues  of  school  and  home  life,  grade  by  grade,  in  an  indirect 
manner,  leaving  the  child  to  do  his  own  moralizing.  This  is  the 
first  and  only  series  of  readers  to  concentrate  attention  on  the 
problems  of  morality  and  their  solution  in  an  indirect  manner. 

These  books  are  all  neatly  and  strongly  bound,  printed  in 
large,  clear  type,  on  good  paper,  with  appropriate  illustration. 

L  The  Golden  Ladder  Book,  Third  Grade 

IL  The  Golden  Path  Book,  Fourth  Grade 

III.  The  Golden  Door  Book,  Fifth  Grade 

IV.  The  Golden  Key  Book,  Sixth  Grade 

V.  The  Golden  Word  Book,  Seventh  Grade 
VL  The  Golden  Deed  Book,  Eighth  Grade 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

64-66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York 
CHICAGO  BOSTON  SAN  FRANCISCO  DALLAS  ATLANTA 


$H 

THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED   FOR  FAILURE  TO   RETURN 
THIS   BOOK  ON   THE  DATE  DUE.   THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  50  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY    AND    TO    $1.00    ON    THE    SEVENTH     DAY 
OVERDUE. 

QECuft  1934 

J(JL    29  loin 

■"■■■         **"*7     IJJJQ 

DEC    *&*•' 

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LD  21-100m-7,'33 

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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


